Geographical discoveries of Russian travelers of the 19th century. Russian travelers of the 19th century

In the 19th century, Russian explorers made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries. In 1803 I. Kruzenshtern on the "Nadezhda" and "Neva" made the 1st Russian round-the-world expedition exploring northern part The Pacific, Sakhalin, Alaska, Aleutian Islands. Yu. Lisyanyaky opened one of the Hawaiian Islands... In 1819-21 F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev on the sloops "Vostok" and "Mirny" made the 2nd Arctic expedition. During its 16.1.1820 ships approached Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent." After resting in Australia, the expedition moved to the tropical Pacific Ocean and discovered islands in the Tuamotu archipelago. They were named after Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Ermolov and others. Having rested in Sydney, the ships returned to Antarctica and discovered about. Peter I and the land of Alexander I. In July 1821 the ships returned to Kronstadt, bringing a huge amount of materials and collections. The development of Russian America is associated with the name of A. Baranov. A merchant from Kargopol traded in Alaska since 1790. He made detailed maps Alaska and surrounding islands. In 1799 Baranov became the ruler of the colonies in America. B1804 He founded Novoarkhangelsk. Baranov tried to annex Hawaii to Russia, but failed. Despite his illness, he remained in office until his death. The territory of the Far East remained a blank spot on the Russian map. In 1848 Nicholas 1 sent G. Nevelskoy's expedition to the Far East. He proved that Sakhalin is an island and explored the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin during the expedition around the world in 1822-25. discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands and entered into an agreement with Japan. Around the world expeditions were made by V. Golovin-1807-11, F. Litke-1826-29 and made 50 maps. I. Voznesensky in 1839-40 described Alaska, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands. In 1809 A. Kolodkin began to study the Caspian Sea. In 1848 E. Hoffman and M. Kovalsky explored Sev. Ural. In 1845 the Russian Geographical Society was established.

>> Russian discoverers and travelers

§ 16. Russian discoverers and travelers

The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian explorers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched the perceptions of Russians about the world around them, contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia for the first time fulfilled an old dream: her ships entered the World Ocean.

I.F.Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky.

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Without the Russian discoverers, the world map would have been completely different. Our compatriots - travelers and seafarers - have made discoveries that have enriched world science. The eight most noticeable are in our material.

Bellingshausen's first Antarctic expedition

In 1819, the navigator, captain of the 2nd rank, Thaddeus Bellingshausen led the first Antarctic round-the-world expedition. The purpose of the voyage was to explore the waters of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans, as well as proof or refutation of the existence of the sixth continent - Antarctica. Having equipped two sloops - "Mirny" and "Vostok" (under command), Bellingshausen's detachment went to sea.

The expedition lasted 751 days and wrote many bright pages in the history of geographical discoveries. The main one - - was made on January 28, 1820.

By the way, attempts to open the white continent were made earlier, but they did not bring the desired success: they lacked a little luck, or maybe Russian tenacity.

Thus, the navigator James Cook, summing up the results of his second voyage around the world, wrote: "I went around the ocean of the southern hemisphere at high latitudes and rejected the possibility of the existence of a continent, which, if it can be discovered, then only near the pole in places inaccessible for navigation."

During Bellingshausen's Antarctic expedition, more than 20 islands were discovered and mapped, sketches of Antarctic species and animals living on it were made, and the navigator himself went down in history as a great discoverer.

“The name Bellingshausen can be directly put alongside the names of Columbus and Magellan, with the names of those people who did not give up before the difficulties and imaginary impossibilities created by their predecessors, with the names of people who followed their own independent path, and therefore were the destroyers of obstacles to discoveries, which designate epochs, ”wrote the German geographer August Petermann.

Discovery of Semyonov Tien Shansky

Central Asia at the beginning of the 19th century was one of the least explored regions of the world. An indisputable contribution to the study of the "unknown land" - as geographers called Central Asia - was made by Peter Semyonov.

In 1856, the main dream of the explorer came true - he went on an expedition to the Tien Shan.

“My works on Asian geography led me to a thorough acquaintance with everything that was known about inner Asia. Beckoned me in particular to itself the most central of the Asian mountain ranges - the Tien Shan, which have not yet been set foot European traveler and which was known only from scant Chinese sources. "

Semenov's research in Central Asia lasted two years. During this time, the sources of the Chu, Syrdarya and Sary-Jaz rivers, the Khan-Tengri peaks and others were mapped.

The traveler established the location of the Tien Shan ridges, the height of the snow line in this area and discovered the huge Tien Shan glaciers.

In 1906, by decree of the emperor, for the merits of the discoverer, the prefix was added to his surname - Tien Shansky.

Asia Przewalski

In the 70's and 80's. XIX century Nikolai Przhevalsky led four expeditions to Central Asia. This little-studied area has always attracted the explorer, and a trip to Central Asia was his old dream.

Over the years of research have been studied mountain systems Kun-Lun , ridges of Northern Tibet, the sources of the Yellow River and Yangtze, basins Kuku-nora and Lob-nora.

Przewalski was the second person after Marco Polo to reach lakes-swamps Lob-nora!

In addition, the traveler discovered dozens of plant and animal species that are named after him.

“Happy fate made it possible to carry out a feasible study of the least known and most inaccessible countries of inner Asia,” Nikolai Przhevalsky wrote in his diary.

Kruzenstern's circumnavigation

The names of Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky became known after the first Russian round-the-world expedition.

For three years, from 1803 to 1806. - that is how long the first circumnavigation lasted - the ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva", passing through the Atlantic Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and then reached Kamchatka, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin by the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The expedition refined the map of the Pacific Ocean, collected information about the nature and inhabitants of Kamchatka and the Kuriles.

During the voyage, Russian sailors crossed the equator for the first time. Celebrated this event, according to tradition, with the participation of Neptune.

The sailor, dressed in the lord of the seas, asked Kruzenstern why he had arrived here with his ships, because the Russian flag had not been seen in these places before. To which the commander of the expedition replied: "For the glory of science and our fatherland!"

Expedition of Nevelskoy

Admiral Gennady Nevelskoy is rightfully considered one of the outstanding navigators of the 19th century. In 1849 he set off on an expedition to the Far East on the Baikal transport ship.

The Amur expedition lasted until 1855, during which time Nevelskoy made several major discoveries in the area of ​​the lower Amur and northern shores Sea of ​​Japan, annexed to Russia the vast expanses of the Amur and Primorye.

Thanks to the navigator, it became known that Sakhalin is an island that is separated by the navigable Tatar Strait, and the mouth of the Amur is accessible for ships to enter from the sea.

In 1850, a detachment of Nevelskoy founded the Nikolaev post, which today is known as Nikolaevsk-on-Amur.

“The discoveries made by Nevelsky are invaluable for Russia,” wrote Count Nikolai Muravyov-Amursky - Many previous expeditions to these lands could achieve European glory, but none of them achieved domestic benefits, at least to the extent that Nevelskoy did it. "

Vilkitsky North

The purpose of the hydrographic expedition of the Arctic Ocean in 1910-1915. was the development of the Northern Sea Route. By chance, the captain of the 2nd rank Boris Vilkitsky took over the duties of the head of the voyage. Icebreaking ships "Taimyr" and "Vaygach" went to sea.

Vilkitsky moved along the northern water area from east to west, and during his voyage he managed to compile an authentic description of the northern coast of Eastern Siberia and many islands, received essential information about currents and climate, and also became the first who made a through voyage from Vladivostok to Arkhangelsk.

The members of the expedition discovered the Land of Emperor Nicholas I. I., known today as Novaya Zemlya - this discovery is considered the last significant on the globe.

In addition, thanks to Vilkitsky, the islands of Maly Taimyr, Starokadomsky and Zhokhov were mapped.

At the end of the expedition, the First World War began. The traveler Roald Amundsen, having learned about the success of Vilkitsky's voyage, could not resist exclaiming to him:

"V Peaceful time this expedition would excite the whole world! "

Kamchatka campaign of Bering and Chirikov

The second quarter of the 18th century was rich in geographical discoveries. All of them were made during the First and Second Kamchatka expeditions, which immortalized the names of Vitus Bering and Alexei Chirikov.

During the First Kamchatka campaign Bering - the leader of the expedition and his assistant Chirikov explored and mapped the Pacific coast of Kamchatka and Northeast Asia. They discovered two peninsulas - Kamchatsky and Ozerny, Kamchatsky Bay, Karaginsky Bay, Cross Bay, Providence Bay and St. Lawrence Island, as well as the strait, which today bears the name of Vitus Bering.

Companions - Bering and Chirikov - also led the Second Kamchatka Expedition. The goal of the campaign was to find a way to North America and explore the islands of the Pacific Ocean.

In Avacha Bay, the expedition members laid the foundation for the Petropavlovsk prison - in honor of the ships of navigation "St. Peter" and "St. Paul" - which was later renamed Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

When the ships sailed to the shores of America, by the will of evil fate, Bering and Chirikov began to act alone - because of the fog, their ships lost each other.

"St. Peter" under the leadership of Bering reached west coast America.

And on the way back, the members of the expedition, who had a lot of difficulties, were thrown into a small island by a storm. Here Vitus Bering's life ended, and the island where the expedition members stopped to spend the winter was named after Bering.
"St. Paul" Chirikov also reached the shores of America, but the voyage ended more safely for him - on the way back he discovered a number of islands in the Aleutian ridge and returned safely to the Peter and Paul prison.

Ivan Moskvitin's "Tumbling Lands"

Little is known about the life of Ivan Moskvitin, but this man still went down in history, and the reason for this is the new lands he discovered.

In 1639, Moskvitin, leading a detachment of Cossacks, set sail for the Far East. The main goal of the travelers was “to find new unstable lands”, to collect furs and fish. The Cossacks overcame the Aldan, Mayu and Yudomu rivers, discovered the Dzhugdzhur ridge, which separates the rivers of the Lena basin from the rivers flowing into the sea, and along the Ulya river entered the "Lamskoye" or Okhotsk Sea. Having explored the coast, the Cossacks discovered the Tauiskaya Bay and entered the Sakhalin Bay, circling the Shantar Islands.

One of the Cossacks said that the rivers in open lands "are sable, there are many animals, and fish, but fish are big, there is no such fish in Siberia ... there are so many of them - just run the seine and you can't drag the fish out ...".

The geographical data collected by Ivan Moskvitin formed the basis for the first map of the Far East.

Chapter # 8

Lecture number 36

Russian culture in the 19th century

First half of the 19th century

Education and Science

At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education was finally formed in Russia. Held in 1803 year, the reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial town, and a school in every county town. Parish schools were also created in rural areas, where children of different classes were accepted. The Ministry of Public Education was created to manage educational institutions.

V 1811 was opened Alexandrovsky (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (including A.S. Pushkin),

The government of Alexander I paid much attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University before that in Russia, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Derpt (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilensky (1804), Petersburg (1819).

Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became estates-isolated. Parish one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the "lower classes". During the year they taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic. Children of merchants, artisans, burghers were admitted to the district three-class schools. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. Children of noblemen, officials, merchants of the first guild studied in the seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of educating the children of serfs in gymnasiums and universities. Control over universities that were considered sources of "unreliability" was tightened. In 1835, the universities were stripped of their internal autonomy status.

The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, is increasing. In 1832, the Imperial Military Academy was opened, in 1855 - the Artillery and Engineering Academy.

The growth of industrial production and the development of technology have caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational and technical educational institutions increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. A Commercial Academy, an Agricultural School, a Mining School, and a Technical School were opened in Moscow.

The development of domestic science also contributed to the improvement of the education system.

Scientific discoveries

Biology
Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky	He refuted the statement about the immutability of plants and animals, he argued that the earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it over time under the influence of natural causes undergo fundamental changes.
Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky	He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are caused by natural causes and are subject to the general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process.
Karl Maksimovich Baer	The work "The General Law of the Development of Nature" became a serious step forward in substantiating the concept of the development of living organisms.
Medicine
Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov	Professor of the Medical and Surgical Academy, the founder of military field surgery. During the Crimean War, for the first time in the field, he applied anesthesia during an operation, used an immobile plaster cast to treat fractures.
Maths
Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky	Created non-Euclidean geometry
Physics
Vasily Petrov	Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - a prototype of the future light bulb.
Boris Semenovich Jacobi	Invented the electric motor, electroplating - a method of applying a thin layer of metal to the desired surface using electricity. Invented the direct-printing apparatus for the telegraph
Emil Christianovich Lenz	He established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law0, and a year later, on this basis, an electric motor was invented
Pavel Lvovich Schilling	Created the world's first practically usable electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires
Chemistry
Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff	Developed a method for producing glucose.
Herman Ivanovich Hess	Discovered the basic law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy as applied to chemical processes
Petr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilievich Lyubarsky	Powder metallurgy began
Science in production
Pavel Petrovich Anosov	Developed four options for the technology of producing damask steel
Efim and Miron Cherepanov, serf mechanics	The first steam room was built railroad
Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov	Created stable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry
History
Nikolay Mikhailovich Karamzin	Wrote a 12-volume "History of the Russian State"
Sergey Mikhailovich Soloviev	Wrote "History of Russia from Ancient Times" in 29 volumes

Russian discoverers and travelers

Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky	In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round-the-world expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis for the published Atlas of the South Seas.
Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev	In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on boats (single-masted ships) "Vostok" and "Mirny". In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of the then unknown Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent". After staying in Australia, the Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russians. For 751 days of sailing, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, brought valuable collections, observations of the waters of the world's oceans and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind
Alexander Andreevich Baranov	He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. As a merchant, he searched for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything they needed.It was he who managed to secure for Russia vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America
Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky	In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur.
Evfimy Vasilievich Putyatin	In the years 1852-1855. being the leader of the expedition, he discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelskoy, he laid the foundation for the consolidation of the Primorsky region for Russia at Far East.

Art culture

The "Golden Age" of Russian Literature

In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its "golden age". She raised the most important social problems, one of the main among them was the problem of strengthening national identity... Writers and poets turned to the country's historical past, trying to find answers to modern questions in it.

An important feature the development of literature and art of this time was a rapid change in artistic directions and the simultaneous existence of various art styles.

The dominant direction in Russian and European art of the early 19th century remained classicism... His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century, it was more connected with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic wars, the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.

The most striking example of the combination of literary work and the activity of a historian was creativity Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin... In the story "Martha Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod, he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow") traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thus a united and strong Russian state. These thoughts were imbued with his scientific work "History of the Russian State."

The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, the moral traits of a person of previous eras.

One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism... Romanticism is a trend in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero opposing himself, the world of his soul to the world around him.

Russian romanticism was distinguished by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, the establishment of a strong, liberated personality

The creator of Russian romanticism is considered to be Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads "Lyudmila" and "Svetlana" became models of the style of new literature.

In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.

At the beginning of his career, romantic works were created by the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov. Their works, in contrast to the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by vital optimism, an active position in the struggle for ideals. These traits were predominant in romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they who outlined the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. Outstanding examples of literature in this direction were the works of late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama Boris Godunov, the stories The Captain's Daughter, Dubrovsky, Belkin's Tale, the Bronze Horseman poem, etc. as well as Lermontov's novel A Hero of Our Time.

In the 20-50s. another new direction is becoming widespread - realism. His followers tried to portray the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the trends of the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and by the very content of the works requiring changes.

The founder of the "natural school" (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilievich Gogol. One of the brightest works of this artistic direction was his story "The Overcoat", which, along with his other works: "Dead Souls," "The Inspector General," and others, began the "Gogol period" of Russian literature in the 1930s and 1940s. “We all came out of Gogol’s Overcoat,” FM later noted. Dostoevsky.

Alexander Nikolaevich Ostrovsky showed the reader the realistic world of the Russian merchants in his first drama "Our people - we will be numbered", revealing the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained a rich life experience associated with the life and customs of the Russian merchants.

In the 40-50s. central place in literature, the theme of the serf village, its customs and mores was occupied. A literary event was the publication of "Notes of a Hunter" by Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev, who described not only the nature of the Central Russian strip, but also the serfs, to whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.

The hopeless poverty and oppression of the serf were portrayed in Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich's stories "The Village" and "Anton-Goremyka". As one of his contemporaries wrote, "not a single educated person of that time ... could read without tears about Anton's misfortunes and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom."

The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of the modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the heavy written speech of the previous century.

Theatre

In Russian theater, the change in artistic trends occurred as quickly as in literature.

At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism prevailed on the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent antique and mythological plots, external splendor.

In the 20-30s. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experience of the heroes. The largest representative of romanticism in Russian theater was Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in the drama of F. Schiller “Treachery and Love). His play was distinguished by stormy emotionality, and his characters were distinguished by a selfless struggle for freedom and justice.

In the 40s. begins a new page in the history of Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In drama, it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting. Shchepkin was the first to suggest subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin in the Maly Theater became the largest public event in the life of Moscow.

Another remarkable actor of the school of stage realism was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. He with great skill conveyed the experiences and everyday life of the "little man" of his time.

An important feature of the theater's development in those years was that the former Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet performances) and Maly (dramatic). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theater, which differed from the more democratic Moscow Maly in its official character.

Music

Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic 1812. If before the household opera prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic subjects of the historical past of Russia. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".

The entire first half of the 19th century was marked by the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motives sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamov, A.A. Alyabyeva, A.L. Gurilev.

The romantic trend in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. "The people create music," he said, and we, the artists, only arrange it. "

Glinka was able to establish in Russian music not only folk, but also realistic traditions. He became the founder of the main genres of Russian professional music. The most vivid idea of ​​the composer's work is provided by his opera "A Life for the Tsar" ("Ivan Susanin"). In it, Glinka glorified a simple peasant-patriot and at the same time the courage, steadfastness and greatness of the character of the entire Russian people.

The development of the national theme in music was continued by another Russian composer - Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky. His main work - the opera "Mermaid" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.

Painting

During this period, there is a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological plots, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. There is a growing interest of artists in the personality of man, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people.

Karl Pavlovich Bryullov became the largest figure of classicism in Russian painting. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - "The Last Day of Pompeii" - for the first time he presented the people as a hero, conveying the dignity, heroism and greatness of a common man in a natural disaster. In this work of Bryullov, a striving for realism became apparent. It manifested itself in all of his paintings: "Self-portrait", "Horsewoman", etc.

The outstanding representatives of romanticism in painting were the remarkable portrait painters Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (President of the Academy of Arts). In them, he showed a sublime beginning, an inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. A distinctive feature of Tropinin's work was the display of a person in his environment, doing what he loved. Such are his genre portraits "The Lacemaker", "The Guitarist", "The Gold Embroiderer" and others. Tropinin is also famous for the fact that he became the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.

Alexander Andreevich Ivanov became one of the greatest masters of Russian painting. The main work of his life was the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People", on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of ​​the picture is the belief in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the many depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of enlightenment. Words that can show people the way to a better future.

Pavel Andreevich Fedotov became the founder of critical realism in Russian painting. In his genre paintings, he managed to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: "The Fresh Cavalier" and "The Courtship of a Major", in which one can see the drama of situations, the author's critical position in relation to reality.

The genre of the genre, popular in the 19th century, was born in connection with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings became a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of the peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On arable land. Spring "," At the harvest. Summer ”,“ Zakharka ”, in the portrait gallery of peasants, he portrayed their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of their native nature. This direction of painting is usually called the "Venetian school".

In the genre of seascape worked I.K. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with an amazingly picturesque depiction of the sea element. The painting "The Ninth Wave" acquired particular fame, which is a vivid example of the master's unsurpassed professionalism and testifies to the romantic nature of his work during this period.

The center of the artistic life of Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in 1832 in Moscow.

Architecture

In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creation. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its peak at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, austerity of lines inherited from imperial Rome. An important element there were also sculptures in the Empire style, complementing the architectural design of buildings. In the Empire style, palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, assemblies of the nobility, public places, theaters and even temples were erected.

The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures, united into a single whole. In St. Petersburg, it was then that the Palace, Admiralteyskaya and Senatskaya squares were formed, in Moscow - Teatralnaya.

The largest representatives of the Russian Empire style were Andreian Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the Admiralty building in St. Petersburg, and Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.

Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, creating the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.

In Moscow in the Empire style, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were performed: the Red Square, reconstructed after the fire of 1812, Teatralnaya Square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gates, etc.

Architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigorievich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored public buildings in Moscow destroyed by the fire of 1812: Slobodsky Palace, Catherine Institute, Moscow University.

With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. the "Russian-Byzantine" style begins to spread. The architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton in this style created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory, Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) railway station, etc.

The largest Orthodox church Petersburg was Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferrand, floor personal control Emperor Nicholas I.

Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral

The interior decoration of St. Isaac's Cathedral

Sculpture

The development of sculpture was closely related to the development of architecture. Especially a lot of works organically inscribed in architectural ensembles were created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: a bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps at the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Pyotr Karlovich Klodt: "The Horse Tamer" on Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I erected on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos creates a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.

Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments in Moscow. It is located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of national heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody the lofty ideals of civic valor and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing his hand at Moscow, hands over an ancient sword to Prince Pozharsky and calls on him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on the shield, the wounded voivode rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of the people's consciousness at a difficult hour for the Fatherland.

The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "Golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: a rapid change in artistic styles and trends, mutual enrichment and close relationship of literature and other areas of art, strengthening of the public sound of the works created, organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, led to an increase in its influence on the life of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.

Second half of the 19th century

Education

The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of the awareness of society and the state of the need for a broad enlightenment of the people. The reform in the field of education, carried out in 1864, expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:

1) zemstvo schools, created by the forces of zemstvos

2) church schools

3) public schools of the Ministry of Public Education

Reform secondary schools were divided into two types:

-classical gymnasiums- in them, the main emphasis was on the study of subjects of the humanitarian cycle, graduates of gymnasiums could enter universities without exams;

Real schools differed from gymnasiums in their great attention to natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry, real schools prepared for admission to technical higher educational institutions.

Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10 thousand zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parish schools, but the state did not have enough money for their maintenance. Therefore, the zemstvo school continued to be the most common type primary school, covering all provincial and district cities, as well as many rural areas. The main type of secondary school was the gymnasium. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia, after a quarter of a century the number of gymnasiums increased 3 times. about 300 women's gymnasiums were opened.

There were also successes in higher education. New universities were opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into effect, expanding the self-government rights of universities.

There were special higher educational institutions - the Medical and Surgical Academy, the Technological, Mining, Communications, Electrotechnical Universities, the Petrovsk Agricultural Academy. The formation of higher education for women took place. By the end of the 19th century, there were over 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.

Overall, however, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census, the average literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. A little more than 1% of the population had a higher education, and 4% had a secondary education.

Scientific discoveries

Mathematics and physics
Pafnuti Lvovich Chebyshev - mathematician and physicist	Constructed a plantigrade machine. Simulating the movement of an animal while walking, as well as an automatic calculating machine - an arithmometer.
Alexander G. Stoletov - physicist	By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the approval of the electromagnetic theory of light
Alexander Stepanovich Popov - physicist	He made a receiver-transmitter, after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. For its discovery, he was awarded the Great Gold Medal at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900.
Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist	He created an arc light bulb, which soon illuminated the streets and houses of many cities around the world.
Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky	Constructed the world's first airplane
Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov	Invented the tracked tractor
Chemistry, biology
Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist	Discovered the periodic law of chemical elements,
Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov-chemist	Laid the foundations of organic chemistry
Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev - soil scientist	Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal, in his book he outlined a plan to combat the drought that hit the black earth belt of Russia by planting forest protection belts
Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist	He created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, thereby realizing a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically proved the unity and mutual dependence of mental and bodily phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing more than the result of the work of the brain.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist	He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which laid the foundation for modern concepts of the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and latest form of adaptation of the body to environment... If an unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of an organism, inherent in all representatives of a given species, then a conditioned reflex is a new acquisition of an organism, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience.
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists	They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods of fighting against rabies, and paid great attention to the fight against pests of agricultural plants.
Geography
Academician, Admiral Fedor Petrovich Litke - geographer	Examined Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific Ocean
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer	He carried out major geological and zoological surveys in Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: a wild horse, a wild camel, a Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand specimens, 218 new plant species were discovered.
Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay - geographer	He devoted his life to studying the peoples of Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. He lived for two and a half years on the northeastern coast of New Guinea. Has won the love and trust of its inhabitants. He visited the southwest coast of this island, southeast coast, made two difficult trips to the interior of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station.
Humanitarian sciences
Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev	Created a 29 - volume "History of Russia from Ancient Times". His Public Readings on Peter the Great, timed to coincide with the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical method of research, pointed out the common features of the development of Russia and Western Europe.
Soloviev's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky	He brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation “Boyar Duma Ancient Rus". He was the author of the "Course in Russian History", which he taught at Moscow University

Domestic science second half of the XIX century came to the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom, they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.

Literature

The main artistic direction of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life based on its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by a spirit of accusation, a keen interest in the life of an ordinary person, a desire to find ways and means of combating the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time terrible in the works of the satirist: "Provincial Essays", "The History of a City", "Lord Golovlev", "Pompadours and Pompadours". The artistic device used by the writer is grotesque. In his works, he takes all existing vices and weaknesses to the extreme. The writer knows no mercy either to officials, or to representatives of high society, or to merchants, or to the emerging bourgeoisie.

Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and this posed new challenges for Russian geographers.
In 1803-1806. the first Russian round-the-world expedition was undertaken from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. It was headed by Admiral Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern (1770-1846). He commanded the ship "Nadezhda". The ship "Neva" was commanded by Captain Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773-1837). During the expedition, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, China, Japan, Sakhalin and Kamchatka were studied. Detailed maps of the explored sites were compiled. Lisyansky, having independently made the transition from Hawaii to Alaska, collected a wealth of material about the peoples of Oceania and North America.
The attention of researchers around the world has long been attracted by the mysterious area around South Pole... It was assumed that there is a vast southern continent. English navigator J. Cook in the 70s of the 18th century. crossed the South Arctic Circle, came across impassable ice and declared that sailing further south was impossible. Since then, there have been no South Polar expeditions for a very long time.

In 1819, Russia sent an expedition to the southern polar seas on two sloops led by Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778-1852). He commanded the sloop Vostok. The commander of the "Mirny" was Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (1788-1851). Bellingshausen was an experienced explorer, participated in the voyage of the Krusenstern. Lazarev later became famous as a combat admiral, who brought up a whole galaxy of naval commanders (Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin).
The expedition crossed the South Arctic Circle several times, and in January 1820 saw the ice coast for the first time. Approaching it in the area of ​​the modern Bellingshausen Ice Shelf, the travelers concluded that in front of them was an “ice continent”. Then the island of Peter I and the coast of Alexander I were discovered. In 1821, the expedition returned to its homeland, having made the discovery of Antarctica and a complete voyage around it on small sailing ships, poorly adapted to polar conditions.
In 1811, Russian sailors led by Captain Vasily Mikhailovich Golovkin (1776-1831) examined Kurile Islands and were taken into Japanese captivity. Golovkin's notes about his three-year stay in Japan introduced Russian society with this life mysterious country... Golovnin's student, Fyodor Petrovich Litke (1797-1882), explored the Northern Arctic Ocean, the coast of Kamchatka and America. He founded the Russian Geographical Society, which played an important role in the development of geographical science.
Major geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name of Gennady Ivanovich Nevelskoy (1813-1876). In 1848-1849. he sailed around Cape Horn to Kamchatka, and then led the Amur expedition. He opened the mouth of the Amur, the strait between Sakhalin and the mainland and proved that Sakhalin is an island, not a peninsula.
The expeditions of Russian travelers, in addition to purely scientific results, were of great importance in the matter of mutual knowledge of peoples. In distant lands locals from Russian travelers they often learned about Russia for the first time. In turn, the Russian people were enriched with knowledge about other countries and peoples.