Traveling to medieval Paris. Historical monuments of France: Middle Ages Paris

Medieval Paris left magnificent samples of Romanesque architecture (X-XII century), in which they were revived, although in a somewhat recycled form, the foundations borrowed by francs in the Roman architecture. For the Romanesque style, severe proportions, powerful walls carrying semi-curvous arches and arched floors Openings.

One of the most notable Paris monuments of architecture of this period is the Church Saint-Germain de Pre , Founded in the middle of the 6th century, King Hildehert I for storing the Tunic of St. Victory Saragossky and now located in the lively part of the Latin Quarter (as it was surrounded by meadows, it was reflected in the title: Fr. Pré - meadow).

This first Christian monastery soon became abbey in the fields outside the city. I managed it a certain father Germain,

So the name of Saint-Germain de Pre is appeared.

In this temple, the Christian preacher, the Paris Bishop Germain, was buried, after his death in 576, the first kings of the Meroving Dynasty, but was burned in the Normans in the IX church.

In the XI century, a bell tower was built, which is now highlighted by its height among later buildings, and in the XII century - the main volume of the church with the altar part (in the XVII century the temple was rebuilt again, but the bell tower and the altar part retained their strict features of the architecture of the early Middle Ages )

Vensenesky Castle
Romanesque architecture, with all its workplace of architectural forms and compositions, has become only a precursor of the formation of a new architectural style - the Gothic, which originated in France. And since Paris was the capital, he inevitably turned into the main "construction laboratory" of the new architectural thinking.

In the eastern Paris suburb, Venseen has survived in a somewhat modified form, laid down in the Epoch of the Early Middle Ages and the Gothic Epoch - the Vincensky Castle, one time was the royal residence. By 1370, the construction of the castle, started in the XI century, was completed.

In the territory, surrounded by a powerful wall and a moat, a residential tower is towers - Donta. Almost square in terms of an array of 52-meter donzhon flank four angular round turrets. It was possible to get into the castle only through the lifting bridge, converted through the moat, and the fortress gate in the wall with nine towers.

At the top of the powerful walls, a combat move was held, which covered mounted loopholes (machine). Here, somewhat away from the center of Paris, a closed court world was created, who had even his small chapel. In modern form, the entire complex turned into a historic museum is a characteristic monument of medieval architecture of the XIV century

Gothic architecture was caused by the rapid growth of cities and the need to have more spacious temples - in fact, the main public buildings of the medieval era. The accumulation of construction experience and technical knowledge led to a high-quality rope in the construction of flights, arches and supports.

The articulated arch began to be applied, and the vaulted coatings began to construct on a frame basis of stone edges (ribs) made from a particularly durable stone. Now the external walls have long been supported by the supports, lost their constructive sense, and the vaults were supported by the system of open semi-colors (arkbutans) and outdoor supports (counterphorts). This allowed the entire surface between counterphorts to perform from glass on a stone frame, putting the beginning of the famous medieval stained glass windows from a multicolored glass on lead gaskets

A brilliant model of gothic architecture is cathedral of the Parisian Mother of God (Notre Dame de Paris), towering in the eastern part of the island of SITE. Around 550, at the place of the ancient temple of Jupiter, the Basilica of St. Etienne was built on the venue of the Frankish king, to which the Baptistery dedicated to John the Baptist was adjacent, and the Church of Our Lady (the residence of the Bishop of German Paris is also).

In the middle of the XII century it was decided to rebuild them and actually build a new, more spacious temple. The construction started at the initiative of the Paris bishop Maoris De Silli in 1163, was held for a long time and ended only in 1343 (it was then Capellas between the counterphorts and the crown of the chapel around the choir were created).

The grandee, the Cathedral, which is capable of at the same time to accommodate about 10 thousand people (length - 130 m, width - 108 m, the height of the towers - 69 m, the height of the arches is 39 m), has become a kind of model for the entire medieval temple industry in France. A monastery of the Mother of God, Cathedral schools and canonikov houses were located around the Cathedral of Notre Dame

The architecture of the cathedral found a reflection of the whole process of the development of Gothic. Horizontal membership and heavy lower tier of the western facade are the echoes of the Romanesque style, while the system of wide arcbutans, a strongly dissected and pointed through gallery at the foot of the towers and round roses - the bright embodiment of the Gothic architecture.

The gallery of stone sculptures of the kings from the Old Testament stretched over the portals (previously in the niches stood the statues of kings), on the protrusions of the eaves, the figures of Garguliy were placed, and the chorine fence with bas-reliefs and the sculpture of Our Lady on the North Portal - real examples of the art of medieval sculptors (once the sculptures of the cathedral were painted and Even partly gilded). Among the polychry stained glass windows are especially noteworthy on the axis of the western facade and on the ends of the transverse neopa (translat). In the XVIII century, most colored stained glass windows were replaced by white glazing, stained glass windows remained only in roses (and the XIII century dates back to the stained glass window in Northern Rose)

Conciergeri
The western part of the island of Site occupies a huge complex of the Palace of Justice. His northern facade, going to the right tributary of the Seine, gives a vivid picture of the harsh royal castle with a prison and a treasury, where they kept the treasury.

Three of the preserved towers are dated the XIII century, and the corner tower was built with a century later (the bell was installed on it, which heated the entire Paris about the birth of the royal heir, and the first in the city of tower clock).

After in the XIV century, King Karl V moved to a more spacious Louvre, parliament remained in the old residence of the monarch, the Accounts Chamber and other government agencies.

In 1417, the France Chancellor was appointed to Concierge, that is, the gatekeeper of the royal dwelling, which is why the castle was called Conciergeri. In the XIX century, the building was significantly expanded, the facade facing the area of \u200b\u200bDauphine

Capella Saint-Chapel

The most outstanding object in the Concierger Palace is St. Chapel - a holy or royal chapel, located in the southeastern courtyard of the complex (part of the facade of Chapels goes to the Palace Boulevard, crossing the SIT between the bridge changed and the Saint-Michel bridge).

It was built in 1246-1248 for the order of the pious king of Louis IX Saint for the storage of numerous sacred relics, and above all the highly paid thunder crown acquired by the monarch for the huge amount of the amount of Venetian Roshovists. The name of the architect is not known for certain, usually the construction of Capella is attributed to Pierre de Montreus.

The extended high volume of the Saint-Chapel contains two halls located above each other. In the lower hall, two rows of columns maintain bunches of ribs carrying vaults. The toproom, actually, and being the royal chapel, has a 10-meter span and free from the inner support (it seems that the arches raised at the height of seven meters in the air).

The hall surrounds colored stained glass windows, between which thin stone racks are arranged, branching under the arches of several ribs. Rose in the end above the entrance to its complex interweaving of the stone base symbolizes the flaming goth of the XV century (the bell tower was also prescribed).

Painted in blue column column and Capella vaults are ornamentalized by repeating gold-plated inserts in the form of a stylized lily flower in the upper hall and a castle silhouette in the lower (golden lily on a blue background symbolizes the Royal coat of arms of France). In the middle of the XIX century, the Saint-Chapel building was restored, during which Violla-le-Duke recreated a spire and a significant part of stained glass windows, at the same time maintain the specificity of the gothic period of her heyday

Saint-Germain-L "Osera

Opposite the eastern facade of the Louvre is located the Gothic Temple of Saint-Germain-L "Ozeroi, founded in the XII century (only a high Romanesque bell tower has been preserved).

The chores of the XIII century belong to early gothic, the main array of the church of the XV century - to the flaming Gothic, and the side portal - to the era of the Renaissance. As most of the medieval buildings of Paris, and this temple was later reconstructed, but unique ribbed vaults were preserved, lace rose, valuable stained glass windows, numerous sculptural completions of eaves, drains and turrets.

Saint-Germaine L'Serua was the parish Church of the Royal Court, located in the neighboring Louvro Castle, so many artists, sculptors, architects and scientists who worked and living in court were buried in it. The bell on the tower of this church was announced to the beginning of the Huguenot Rabbar in Bartholomeevsky night (August 24, 1572)

Saint-Julien -

Saint-Etienne-du-Mont

Among other buildings in Paris in the Epoch of the Middle Ages, today there are Saint-Julien-le-Rove churches, Saint-Etienne-du Mont, Saint-North, Saint-Medar and Saints Archangelov, Tower of Clea (or Chlodvail) and Other buildings, which remained from the Abbey of Saint Genevieve and now belonging to the Lyceum Henry IV, the college of Bernardines, now busy by the French Catholic Academy, and the Hotel De Klyoni (V District), Church of Saint-Zherwe, Saint-Merry and a Ticket, Archaeological Crypt of Parity Cathedral Notre Dame and hotel de Sans (IV District), Saint-Martin-de Shan and Saint-Nicolas de Shan, Hotel de Subiz,

Lyceum Henry IV, one of the most prestigious educational institutions of France, is located on the territory of the former Abbey of St. Genevieve, which was founded by Chlodwig in honor of the Saints Peter and Paul, Ambassador's battle at Vuye at the request of His wife Queen Clotilda. In the days of cultural heritage, Lyceum opened their doors to everyone.

Hotel De Klisson, a fragment of the fortress tower, which was previously part of the Fortress of the Templars Tampl, and the house of Nicolas Flamel (III district), the refectory monastery of Corderes, now busy medical school of the University of Paris Descartes (VI District), Church of Saint-La Saint-Zhilla (I District), Church of Saint-Pierre-de-Montmartre (XVIII district), Jean Tower of Fearless, previously part of the Palace of the Dukes of the Burgundy (II district)


Church of Saint-Zherev,

Hotel De Klyona

Church of Saint-Martin de Shan

Hotel Subishes

Jean tower safe

Two dozen preserved fragments of the Filipope's Fortiest Wall of August in 1889 were classified as historical monuments. Now they are located on the streets of Jean, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Louvre and St. Ohore (I district), on the streets of Etienne Marseille and Tiekton (II district), on Tampl Street (III District), on the streets of Ave-Maria, Charleman, Fran -Bourgue, hot-sex and rose (IV district), on the streets of D`arras, Cardinal Lemouan, Fossa-Saint-Bernard, Klz, Descartes and Tuen (V District), in the courtyards of merchants-Saint-Andre and Rogan, On the Embankment of Conny, streets of Dofina, Mazarini, Nel and Genhah, in a dead end of the Nevel (VI District)

Bastille Square

Fragments of walls, towers, underground chambers and serfs of the famous Bastille, destroyed in 1791, have been preserved around the modern area of \u200b\u200bBastille: on Bourdon Boulevards and Heinrich IV, Street Saint Antoine, Bastilly Metro Station and Porto Arsenal on Canal Saint-Martin

Former monastery of Cordermen, XIV century

Church of Saint-Merry, XIV-XVII century

Church of Saint-Nicolas de Shan

XII-XVII century Saint-North Church,

XIII-XV century Hotel de Clisson

XIV century Hotel de Sans

XV-XVI century Church Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, XII century

The first Paris schools who worn purely clerical character, arose in the XII century near the walls of Notre Dame de Paris. Soon, wanting to leave from under the guardian care, some of the teachers and their students moved to the left bank under the patronage of more liberal abbey of St. Genevieve and Saint-Victor, where the university founded

Saint-Victor Abbey in the picture 1655

The first royal privilege, weaving his rights and freedoms (as well as the jurisdiction of the jurisdiction of the Royal Prev), the unification of masters and students of the Paris school received in the charter of 1200, the Union of Scholyarov appeared in the Episcopal act of 1207, and the Union of Teachers in Papel Act from 1208 (officially received the University of Paris only in 1217, the faculties were first mentioned in 1219).

Baroque Facade of Sorbonne (Arch. Jacques Lemeras, 1642)

The aologue Robert de Sorbonon, the confessor of King Louis IX, founded in 1253 on the street of the Ku-gel college, on behalf of whom the University and received his second name. Later, at Sorbonne, a typography was organized, where in 1469 published the first book in Paris

College de France

The Latin Quarter actively developed throughout the XIII century, sweating the old cathedral schools located on the SITE and near the Small Bridge. The colleges or colleges at the initial stage were small and fairly non-zero buildings, where in a noisy atmosphere of fun, games, drunkenness and sweatshirts lived and studied about 10 thousand boys (according to other data, in 75 colleges that were crowded between Mober's area and the Saint Hill -Onevian, financed by rich aristocrats and religious orders, about 40 thousand people studied)

Latin Quarter is one of the districts of Paris the most famous in the world. It extends on the 5th and 6th districts, the center in the area of \u200b\u200bSorbonne and the Saint Geneviev Mountains. It crosses the "Cardo de Paris", the North-South axis, corresponding to the current Street Saint-Jacques and the Boulevard Saint-Michel

This area is still popular among students and professors, from the presence of many scientific institutions there.

Lyceum Louis Great, located in the center of the Latin Quarter on site of the Medieval University of Paris

There are also many colleges and lyceums in the area, often prestigious and historical: Louis-Le-Grand, Phenelon, Heinrich IV, Saint-Louis, Notre Dam de Zion, Stanislav, School, Alsace, Montae, Lavuance Lyceum. Consequently, many bookstores specializing in literature, natural sciences, history, medicine, politics, philosophy, right, are in the area, even if they, as a rule, disappear

Hospitals Hotel-Die in Paris, France. Paris-Diet Paris "Parisian Shelter" - the oldest Hospital of Paris,

Quarter Mare

Mare is one of the oldest quarters of Paris, which is considered the most extraordinary and unique place in the city. Why do you ask me? Everything is simple, the "Hand of Baron Osman" did not reach him, the author of Paris's restructuring at the end of the 19th century. Therefore, the features of a typical medieval city with a labyrinth of narrow streets are preserved here, without sidewalks chained in the walls of the old mansions of the XVII-XVIII century.

Mare, in translation means - a swamp, which was once, in this very place, drained at the venue of the master of the order of the Templars, as well as in the 13th century. It is with his light hand and began the history of this quarter, who became a shelter for the monks of this mysterious Order. Subsequently, with Henrich IV, the Royal Square appeared here (now the Vogzov Square is the oldest square of Paris) who has become the heart of this quarter. And this is not the only sight of Mare.

Here is one of the most interesting museums of France - Carnival, in which unique exhibits are collected, talking about the history of Paris's life over the centuries. And I will tell you about those people (Marquis de Brenville, Princess Rogan, Madame de Sevier, Duke Orleans) that once owned these mansions and created the history of this beautiful country. ... And believe me there is something to suck.

On Fran Bourgeois Street, a wonderful mansion with a turret. This is Jean Erue House (Treasurer Louis XII), built about 1510.

Hotel De Angleumel Lamuanon first belonged to the extramarital daughter Heinrich II - the Duchess of the Anguleve, and after, he moved to Lamuanon, a representative of the famous French order. Now there is a historic library

Here the carnival museum (in general it is located in two mansions - the hotel of Karnavale and the hotel Le Pelet de Saint Farzho). Hotel Karnavale is known for the fact that in 1677 he was rented by Marie de Slavegen (she is the same Marquis de Sevinier). She became famous for writing, who wrote to their relatives and friends. "Letters of Mrs. de Sevnier" were published 30 years after her death and produced in Paris a real furyor

Square of Vogzov, Arcade du Cote Est - Paris

The oldest house in Paris is the house of Nicolas Flamel, which is dated 1407th year. Located on 51 Rue de Montmorency

On François Miron Street (Rue François-Miron), there are two houses - 11 and 13, which are dated XV century

Rue Des Barres is located home No. 12, which belonged to Mobeiuson Abbey and was reconstructed in the 1540th year

And finally, the house number 3 has been preserved on Rue Volta, which was built in 1644

Houses 44-46 Rue François Miron. Served as Cistercian Abbey (XIII century). Now on the first floor there is a wonderful store on the history of Paris and an organization that is engaged in historical monuments of Paris

If you enter the store, on the right there will be steps in the basement, where the Gothic vaults of the Cistercian Abbey of the XIII century are preserved

11-13 Rue du Louvre

rue Des Jardins-Saint-Paul

remains of old walls

By the way, a small piece of ancient Paris can be seen at the beginning of the exposure in the Louvre (at the ground level) - a piece of the first Louvre is put up. But somehow it is not the best inserted (perhaps everything that remains), the whole piece of shopping tower

Sources
Deforno M. Daily life Times Zhanna D`ark. - Moscow: Eurasia, 2003. - 320 p.
Dubnov S. M. Brief history of the Jews. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2003. - 576 with
Combo I. History of Paris. - Moscow: the whole world, 2002. - 176 with
Kosmadsky E. A. The history of the Middle Ages. - Moscow: State Publishing House of Political Literature, 1952. - 748 p.
Lucher A. French society of the time of Philip-August. - Moscow: Eurasia, 1999. - 414 p.
Pilyavsky V. I. and Leboshitz N. Ya. Paris. - Leningrad: Literature Publisher for Construction, 1968. - 112 p.
RU S. Daily life of Paris in the Middle Ages. - Moscow: Young Guard, 2008. - 252 p.

Medieval Paris, who chlodwig chose in 508 as the capital, was still an imprint of Gallo-Romanesque city: fortifications, terms, arena, roads ... Sita is a very populated, there was a royal palace. In the eastern part of the island, the Basilica of St. Stephen, at whose place in several centuries was built by the Cathedral of Notre Dame. With vi in. And in all the Middle Ages, numerous factors, both geographical and economic and religious and intellectual, influenced the development of the left shore first, then right.

The area of \u200b\u200bthe city at this time was 438 hectares. With a population of a hundred thousand people, medieval Paris was the largest city in Europe.

Geographic and natural factors

Paris pool, the place of merging the rivers Marne, Uya, Jonna, Luana and Seine, was a similarity of the bowl. In Paris, Beyevr and Sevr were poured into the Seine. Sena herself, whose flow was more rapid than now, as well as swamps that later named the name in a whole quarter, formed a natural line of defense. Over time, the role of defensive frontiers took on the walls, and the swamps were drained to ensure that the city could develop on the shores. Finally, the hay became the main artery for the transport of goods and food.

Structure of medieval Paris

Economic forces

Starting from the island of Site, along the roads, the traders have exhibited the goods. The economic development of the right shore was more dynamic than the left. The trading activity was higher from those places where it was convenient to adjust, between Saint-Jelva and Saint-Merry. The Guild of Butchers, to which other guilds joined, settled in the Shatle area. The first indoor trading rows arose from 1183.

Religious factors

In addition to the palace complex on the island, a cathedral, a market, hospital, a hotel, and residential buildings are located on the island. On the banks of the river, around the monasteries based on the VI century, agricultural buildings arose. On the left bank, it was Saint-Germain de Pre and Saint-Geneviev, and on the right - Saint-Martin de Sham.

Cultural factors

The first time the city rummaged from the island of Site to the left bank, where the opportunity to get an education among such scientists, like Pierre Abear, attracted about ten thousand students. Colleges based for their stay, have become a training place.

Expensive

The island of Sita was connected with the shores through four bridges. The embankment, built as a means of flooding, become places of Parisian walks.

Gothic architecture of Paris

The innovation of the gothic architecture was the use of an arched arch supported by the weave of columns and separated arches. These innovations introduced in the center of France, in the Il de France region from the first half of the XII century. Gothic development slowed down the further development of Romanesque architecture. Traditionally distinguish early gothic (from 1125 to 1190); mature (up to 1250); radiant (up to 1380); Then late or flaming (until the first third of the XVI century).

Saint-Marten de Sham

The church, built around 1130, in its plan still resembles Romanesque cathedrals. However, the double gallery of choirs, spacious open chapels and one large side chapel and the vaults of the choir supported by the protruding walls, and the convex arch with the interlacing columns are innovative solutions.

Saint-Germain de Pre

The church, with ArkButans and the brilliant chapels, refers to the middle of the XII century. Its appearance was repeated many times and developed in other gothic buildings.

Notre Dame Cathedral

The high windows of the choir have increased in the amount of a set of 15 m height support the ArkButans that reach the counterphorts, between which the chapel is constructed. In brilliant gothic, glass and stone are combined to give windows a new volume, as can be seen on the example of the southern portal roses in the Notre Dame Cathedral (1258-1270).

Capitals

The flower ornament and gilding of the elongated Saint-Chapel Capitals emphasize the mystical symbolism of the decor.

Bastille

Bastille, initially a defensive structure, and then a state prison, is a model of military art of gothic architecture.

Saint-Martin-de Sham

Author of this building Pierre de Montrey. In the refectory unique dimensions (12 mx 42 m), testifying to the excellent ownership of the construction techniques of the construction of gothic buildings. Bright examples are two decorated nefs, the arches of which are maintained by thick columns, and the thin columns are separated.

Louvre

The column of the lower hall of the Royal Palace illustrates the stylistic development that occurred in the second period of Gothic.

Tower of Jean Fearless

A rare certificate of feudal architecture, the tower refers to the beginning of the XV century. It has a twisted staircase, crowned with a spine with a wonderful flower decor.

Saint-Shapel

The spire of the cathedral was built in 1853. Its restoration, like the whole building ensemble, has become one of the most successful buildings of the XIX century.

Modern spire, mounted on fine cast fittings, repeats the model Robert Fashea, which built at the end of the XIV century. This miracle of brilliant gothic architecture.

Saint-Jacqua Tower

The unique decor of archivatts, Pina-glue and fonts makes a masterpiece of flaming gothic from this tower.

Church of St. Chapel in medieval Paris

Louis Holy began construction of Saint-Chapel between 1241 and 1248. Capella, a wonderful pattern of gothic architecture, was a two-level: Lower chapel - for a simple people, the top - for the king. Capella was conceived by Louis Saints as a place of storage of sacred relics taken out by crusaders from Constantinople. This is a building with a single non-rented aphesida. Outside the strictness of the foundation and the power of the counterphorts is opposed to the ease of the upper parts of the building crowned with a spire. But the main decoration of the upper chapel is stained glass windows.

Royal Manifesto

The authorship of St. Chapel traditionally attributed to Pierre de Montreus, who was helped by Thomas de Cormon and Robert de Luzarsh. The church, which was part of the Royal Palace, was not only a religious center, but also political. The king resembled in such a way that he is a temporary spiritual leader of his people and leads his people to eternal life.

XIX century building

During the revolution, Saint-Chapel chapel suffered very much. Felix Duban, Jean-Batist Lassus and Violla-le-Duke worked on her restoration. Construction was recognized as one of the most successful in the XIX century. It was restored: the roof, an external staircase, the spire-hard time in 1853 - interior decoration and part of stained glass windows.

Single ensemble

Capella Saint-Chapel is a single space of four oblong openings ending with semiransh apse.

Lower Church

Lower church similar to Crypt has two rows of columns serving, among other things, to impart the structure of strength. The columns form lateral milmis, in the apse that connects to the gallery.

Top Church

The inner space of the upper part of the Saint-Chapel is characterized by simplicity and unity. The usual three-tiered division of the gothic temples here is replaced with a bunk, almost one-tier, since the tier with window openings seeks to completely absorb the lower part.

Vertical

Massive protruding counterphorts helped builders to do without the construction of ArkButans.

Center of theology

Capella Saint-Chapel is the venue of theological reflections on the passions of Christ, which was indulging in the beggar orders, such as Franciscans. They loved to patronize Louis Holy.

Brilliant engineering solutions

To connect the openings among themselves, the architect has increased the amount of metal reinforcement, permeating the space of the Church. He even took care to hide these massive iron beams, wept them, where it is possible to fit the stained glass fittings.

Medieval Paris is disguised, just so you will not see it, walking on the usual tourist route. Many layers of reconstruction hide from us an old, less well-known town city.

Examine some of the most important medieval places in Paris, which we encourage you to discover for yourself during your next visit to this city.

• With excursion catalog in Paris.

As everyone knows, the Louvre boasts by many famous paintings, hanging along its numerous corridors, rooms and zakulkov. But the huge palace in which the collections are stored, began its lives with a much more utilitarian and strictly militaristic goal.

In the 12th century it was a defensive fortress that defended the medieval population of Paris from the invasion of Northerners. The foundation of the tower and defensive walls can still be seen on the lower floor in the room 7.

Although now Louvre is located in the city center, before it was a perfector of a much smaller medieval Paris. It is easy to obtain an idea of \u200b\u200bthe scale of Paris 800 years ago!

Medieval landmark number 2: Saint-Germain-L "Oderrua

This is a little-known place on the next place with the Louvre Square was once a small parish church on the outskirts of the city walls, which served only to a handful of local parishioners. In the 11th century, King Robert pious founded a much greater church, which was expanded and updated over the next four centuries. After the Middle Age of the Middle Ages, this once the Great Church alternately served by the police station and the typographic factory.

How to get: 2 PLACE DU LOUVR, 1st District

Metro:Pon Nevel or Louvre Rivoli

Medieval landmark number 3: Saint-Chapel Chapel and Conciergeri

King Louis IX built this wonderful chapel for storing several Christian relics in it: crucifixion, including nails and a tree from a true cross and a thorns of the crown. Currently, they are placed in the Cathedral of the Parisian Mother of God, but their history is still traced everywhere in the architecture of the chapel ..

The building itself is an excellent example of gothic architecture, and stained glass windows are a masterpiece of medieval glassmodes. Restoration of windows was completed in May 2015, and now you can see them in all colorful glory. Interestingly, for the complete restoration of windows left seven years - as much time went to the construction of the whole chapel in the 13th century!

In addition, visit the former Royal Castle Concept, located in the same big quarter next to the subway. It has a medieval prison, known in the way they kept the queen Maria Antoinette in a tiny chamber before her execution guillotine during the French revolution.

Avoiding the crowd of tourists, crowded around notre-lads, can be difficult even on a rainy day, but this is not a reason to miss this popular attraction in Paris.

The Cathedral has a secret underground part, which most people neglect, because it is extremely necessary to boil up, making 387 steps to make selfie with the ridge. Opposite the Cathedral Square is the entrance to the archaeological crypt, descending into which you fall at another time. You can see large fragments of the 2000-year-old history of Paris here, from the Roman settlement Lutece, to medieval roads, which were paved by the Baron Ottoman.

This Benedictine Abbey was founded in the 6th century Childebert, the son of King Clovis. He had a high position in the Papal Association and dominated his influence throughout the city. The abbey was originally built to accommodate the relics of the True Cross, and then expanded in the XII century to turn on the bell tower. However, what you see today, including the bell tower dating from the 11th century, is a small part of what remains after the destruction during the revolution.

How to get:3, Place Saint-Germain Des Prés, 6th District

Metro: Saint-Germain de Pre

Klanie Museum is one of the most exciting museums in the world. You can literally get out of the noise and excitement of the city in the calm space of this mansion of the XV century in the city center. The museum holds works of art from all over Europe, and its most valuable heritage is the famous series of tapestry "Lady and Unicorn".

When Paris was still part of a huge Roman Empire, there were social baths in this place - the terms erected at the end of the II - early III centuries. At the end of the XIV century near Ruins, the term was built by the residence of Pierre de Shahala, who headed the Abbey in Burgundy. Between 1485 and 1500 Another Abbot Klyoni, Jacques D "Amboise honored on the ruins of the walls of the Terms mansion, cycling the remnants of their walls. It turns out that we can see at the same time the masterpiece of late" Flaming "Gothic and a monument to the Gallo-Roman era.

When examining the museum, you can see the remnants of the walls of the Roman term outside and excavated with the Louis XVIII room in three inside.

7. Even more medieval attractions and places to explore the French capital

Not yet satisfied with a medieval story after watching these places? The objects listed above are among the most important medieval attractions that you can visit in Paris, but there are still many worthy attention. Among them are the following:

• Dofina Squarewhere the royal palace once stood and where the Templars were burned with a shame on a fire.
• Church of Saint SeverinaThe 13th century, in which there are the oldest bells in Paris, and through the boulevard is located Saint Julien-Le-Pauvrewhich was the place of the School of Theology and Arts of the University of Paris. Around the corner from this church is dante Streetwhere the famous Italian poet once lived.
• Through Seine in the Mare region, known for his winding streets, you can see the remains of medieval Paris and old fastener wall Philip Augustus - The defensive urban wall in medieval Paris, erected by the orders of the French king Philip II August.
• And finally, do not forget to sit on the metro line 13, which is located near the northern border of Paris to visit a stunning saint-Danie Basilica. This is the burial place of dozens of French kings, queens and other royal persons, it was also a medieval pilgrimage site, which once visited Zhanna D "Ark.

Initially, consider the space defined by the construction of the city wall, and people transforming this space in a big city. The landscaping of the medieval capital mainly ended in the XIII century, in the first half of the next century her growth continued, then stalled. Paris survived the period of decline in the first half of the XV century, but by the end of the Middle Ages again began to expand and fix it.

Streets with houses behind them (places where private connected with public) opens a wider view of the city, allow it to consider it in more detail; This approach sheds the light on the daily life of citizens outside their dwellings, complements the study of urban space. Simple townspeople did not play the lead role in big history, but it was they who formed the appearance of a medieval city.

In the first part of our study, we will also consider the course of life of the capital inhabitants through the prism of the team. Parisians, hiding behind the city wall, on their familiar streets, are paid in groups, form some kind of whole, the community conscious of their meaning. In general, the history of Paris has been very successful for a long time.

Chapter first

Space, clearly defined by the authorities and mastered by Parisians

Medieval Paris does not take up much space on the territory of the modern city, which, by the way, is not so great for the metropolis. The history of this space can be read in the footsteps of the fortified walls, denoted the contours of the capital, and judge on them about medieval town planning. Inside the urban walls, the space was organized in church, administrative and military districts. The parishes, ownership, quarters rarely coincide, and such a complex geography raises the question of how the space of their city and their quarter lived and mastered the Parisians.

The urban wall determines the appearance of the city in the XIII century

The construction of the city wall, begun by the will of Philip Augustus, is an important stage in the history of Paris. She gave a visual form of already landscaped zones and outlined those that the king wanted to develop. The wall, completed at the beginning of the XIII century, outlines almost a round city, it from the southeast to the northwest crosses the hay, in the center of which is the island of Sita.

The wall on the right bank, erected in record time - from 1190 to 1200, was financed by citizens, but the wall on the left bank, there was still little inhabited at the end of the XII century, was probably paid from the royal treasury and was built from 1200 to 1220. (In 1262, the court refused the lawsuit of the Abbey of St. Genevieve, who declared his rights to the Gate Saint-Marcel, built on the site of the hut, which belonged to the abbey. The court decided that the gate belongs to the king, since the wall, and the gate in it were paid from Royal Casna.) All this construction describes a circle of 5300 meters long. Something left him, and these residues carefully retain in modern Paris. They can be seen on the right bank can be seen on Stard-Saint-Paul Street, and on the left - on Cujasa Street.

The city shaft consisted of two walls: vertical external and inner, slightly inclined; The gap between these walls from thoroughly fitted stones was covered with rubbed and flooded with lime. The shaft width was three meters at the base and two meters of thirty centimes at the top edge. From above, a sentient path, paved by stone plates and a fenced parapet with braces. From the outside above the shaft, the towers, which are approximately sixty meters from each other (the distance of the arrows), which increased its protective properties. The towers were round, with a diameter of about three meters, from the city where you could get along the small corridor in the meter of the width done in the wall. The passage through the gate (six on the right bank and five on the left) day was free, and at night they were locked for security purposes.

The urban shaft passed through suburban villages with gods and vineyards. On the right bank, the village of Saint-Martin-de-Shan, and on the left - Saint-Marcel and Saint-Germain de Pré, although the latter could be included in the city hell, such as the Abbey of Saint Genevieve . The question of the inclusion of villages to the space of Paris was decided as a result of negotiations between the various authorities: the king, citizens, whose interests were presented by Preje and four Eschena, and major monasteries, in whose lands were villages. Discussions with the authorities of the monasteries whose possessions turned out to be cut in half the city wall, they were certainly sharp, since the abbry could consider themselves suffered in land rights and deceived in the hopes for the profit, which the development of the city promised. The details of the negotiations were not documented, only the result was preserved: the wall.

But with confidence it can be said that Philip August wanted to promote the development of his capital and speed it up. For the first third of the XIII century, the wall was a grand conservation, she outlined the borders of the future city, which was to be "full of houses to the Vala himself", as evidenced by the chronicle of Rigor: "At that summer, the king of Philip is overgrown with the walls of Grad Paris from the south to the water The hay is so wide that fields and vineyards got inside the walls, then ordered to build houses and dwellings everywhere and take them to possession, so that the whole city was full to the very walls "(" Chronicle of Saint-Denis ").

The space and growth of the city in the XIII century

The construction of the wall gave a powerful push to urban planning. A lot of people rushed into the walls of the city, the increase in the number of residents led to the construction of houses; Urbanization was expressed in the laying of streets, the construction of new and restructuring of old churches. I would like to make sure about this boom, but few traces have been preserved from it. You can judge the powerful growth of the city on disputes between all who possessed land rights and the activities of the population. The first burst of urban planning was expressed in the distribution of rights, revenues and competences of the authorities who divided the fenced space among themselves. They were not easy to determine, but if interested persons came to harmony, they decided everything clearly.

Construction on the right bank led to the disappearance of gardens in this swampy and humid terrain. The slopes of the left bank were engaged in vineyards, the fence obsession. In both cases, agriculture, already adapted for the needs of the urban population, was profitable, and the division of land on the plots was made only when the expected benefits of this operation largely exceeded existing income. The left bank began to store in almost after half a century after the right, when the documents were no longer so concise (and the landowners were already better understood in the problems caused by urbanization), therefore, clear administrative acts exist on the separation of vineyards for inclusions.

The names of Bruno, Lasa, Garland or Movoisen, preserved in toponymics, remind of the past value of these suburban vineyards. At the beginning of the XIII century, land plots were cut, grape vines cut down, and the land was given by the monetary interroggers to developers who were obliged to build a house on each site. Outside the wording of AD Domos Faciendas (for the construction of houses), clarifying the purpose of this operation, the preserved text is mainly devoted to the division of the rights of ownership and attaching future residents to a particular coming.

The case with the vineyard of Bruno, sandwiched between the streets of Nuaye, Karm, Saint-Jean-de Beauvais and Saint-Giell, is clearly described in the documents. He belonged to the Paris diocese. In 1202, Ed de Shouly settled the parish status of its inhabitants: the bishop lost his rights to the Vineyard Bruno in exchange for the rights that belonged to the Abbey of Saint Genevieve, to the Church of Saint Genevieve Malaya on the island of Sita. Refusing to this arrival, the abbey included in his left banking parish was just a highlighted land plot (the text says: "Vineyard Bruno, given under housing"). However, the bishop has retained the right to once with justice. At this point, the Prelate entered the dispute with the king, who demanded this right for himself, but ultimately in 1222 the conflict was resolved in favor of the bishop.

The case with the Movoisen vineyard is no less well documented. In the same 1202, the Abbey of Saint Genevieve entered into an agreement with the secular senior Mathieu de Monmodi to the allocation of this vineyard under the plot, limited in the north of the river with a small sleeve, between Stairs Saint-Julien and Gland, and in the East - Mober. The name Movuaazen (bad neighbor) is likely to be due to the neighborhood of the Seine - quite dangerous in this lowland. It was assumed to place the "hosts". The essence of the contract: the section of profits expected from this land operation. The abbey confirms his landowner rights to future buildings (duty in three SU eight days for the land on which the house stands) and the right to the road duty from the streets in his power. Other feudal revenues, duties for transported goods, to travel and trading the abbey will share with Mathie de Monmodrance. By turning on the hosts in your arrival of MON, it retains the expected income from this. (Parishioners paid various "donations" during church services and brought him various "gifts" at the existing tariff for committing baptism, marriage and funeral rites. A large increase in the number of parishioners, which could be expected from the growing of the city, meant the growth of income of the head of the arrival .)

At the beginning of the XIII century, the urbanization of the left bank of the Seine ended with land building, still used for agricultural needs (in this case of vineyards), which was enshrined in written agreements with landowners, and the settlement by their new residents, which meant mainly attaching them to this or Another parish. Pretty soon these transformations led to the reorganization of religious geography by section of the previous parishes, sometimes cut by a new wall, as in the case of the arrival of St. Andre-Dez-AP. Such important changes forced the bishop by the religious life of Paris, landowners, for the most part of the church, and the king, who decided to develop their capital, to agree on the section of the competences and revenues expected from new inhabitants. The merger of feudal possession and arrival is a characteristic phenomenon, the more bright that it left the most written evidence. Earlier, in the second half of the XII century, a similar phenomenon was observed on the right, the trading coast of the Seine, but left less documents.

Certificates of Transfiguration

Urbanization forced to rethink space and methods of economic and administrative management. Since the sources that have come down to us mainly come from Parisian places documented by the representations of the faudals about the urban space and about the gradual transformation of the management of lands and people who have become Parisians. In this regard, an example of the abbey of Saint Genevieve is indicative.

The selection of areas planned by the abbey was carried out at the beginning of the XIII century, however, the registers of the abbey of St. Genevieve's abbey of St. Genevieve, which were made to the registers and income, very contradictory. According to its content, they reflect the progress of urbanization, since they contain a list of people and their homes in the part of the estate that has moved to the city. In their form, the centered registries are compiled as if the city is not, and the Office is conducted as in Great Sellia.

Indeed, the lists compiled by the scribe are distributed over the old sections that no longer correspond to the new position on these lands. The names of the majority of people who are eliminated by the Senor Abbey are found in two rubrics: "Wine lifting" and "meadow luggage", and the first list is longer. The expected lifts should come from the vineyards, but this list after each name is specified: "From your home", thus marks that the vineyard has long disappeared. In the course of the list, the cleric sometimes marks the name of the street where the house is located, but the study of these marks does not reveal any topographic order. Another major section of the centered registries of the mid-XIII century (about the "meadow lifting") recalls that the lifts are associated with income from grazing and haymaking, which is explained because some houses are located along the coast of the Seine. However, in the same registers, in another section, entitled "The names of those who pay the interchange fees", people who seem to be Parisians and lived in the city itself, since they were mentioned among those who were "from the house." Short partitions are added to long lists of wine and meadow lifestas, sometimes clearly defined by topography, and sometimes very foggy: for example, "in various places".

The variation of sections in the middle of the XIII century registers reflects the slow adaptation of feudal control, organized and conceived in rural areas, to a new, urban reality. Control tool (in this case, streamlining by the types of lifestyle) in the urban medium is impractical. In these long lists, you will not immediately delete malicious defaulters. Already inactively divide those who pay from the vineyard, and who is from the meadow, whereas everyone pays, because they have a house in the city in the estate. With the growth of the population increases and the risk not to know about those who have to pay. To keep up with this growth, do not forget subordinates, you need to record not only their names, but also the names of the streets where they are at home. Therefore, the number of topographic notes has increased over the years. In the registry of 1261, the order of houses follows the name of each street, both on one and the other side of the street. The registry of 1276 finally adopted a topographic order. Of course, at that time, toponymy (as, however, anthroponymy) has not yet completely established, and some notes are now unclear to us: for example, "Street, where our anzhis lives lives), but the reception itself is interesting, because it shows that the city I installed my orders, including in the management of the estate. One can only be surprised that adaptation to them passed so slowly. Absor-feudal told themselves too carefully. They tried to be the origin of their rights, persisted in the name of the Podachi, was not forgotten before establishing new legality. At the end of the XIII century, all duties were combined into the land tax, the annual payment of which was the basis and confirmation of the undisputed rights of the senor to the Earth and the immovable property on it.

By the end of the XIII century, all Paris space was covered by a network of streets, divided into parishes, which either coincided with censorship, that is, a rural district, or were separated from it, which formed a rather complicated geography: disorderly accumulation of tiny parishes in the city center and Huge - on the periphery. Such religious geography with insignificant internal changes remained throughout the Middle Ages.

These frameworks were also useful for civil geography, as evidenced by the submitted registries of Paris taxpayers of the late XIII - early XIV century. Tax collectors worked on parishes, and in each of the subsections the names of the inhabitants were recorded streets behind the street. Even the name of the section indicated the route. In the time of Philip, the beautiful Paris space was under strict control of the authorities.

It is more difficult to establish how the Parisians were sought in this confused geography. First of all, it should be emphasized that the names of the urban streets have not specified anywhere. Plates, posted at the beginning of the street on the wall of the first house, or inscriptions carved in stone (several samples reached this day), they received widespread distribution at the end of the new time. Another important point: Not for all the streets, the names were entrenched quickly, and the network of urban arteries was modified, adapting to the growth of the city and its internal transformations. There were not enough written and real instructions, the people of that time knew that they would have to supplement the existing information with oral information.

The space, fenced by a protective wall, was not in the same way. Along the former roads, which became the main city arteries - Streets of Saint-Denis and Saint-Martin, Saint-Jacques, near the old bridges, big and small, where "pans" were formed in the XI-XII centuries, - the building density was great, which indicates The complexity of the boundaries between censors and arrival. But the areas adjacent to the urban wall or along the banks of the river, poorly supplied and flooded, settled much less. Information on the value of houses by the middle of the XIII century indicate that the recently built quarters prices were lower. However, it is not necessary to try to divide the city on the zones, because its inhabitants were engaged in the most different activities, representatives of different estates lived nearby, and the capital did not expand, following some rules imposed by the authorities, and according to a clear social segregation policy.

Ordinary participants in Paris City Planning

These people most often elude research. About those who built concrete houses lived in them and invested their work in the improvement of the city, a little is stated in the sources. And yet they left some traces in the documents. An example of this is the valuable registers of the abbey of Saint Genevieve.

The registry of 1261 lists residents or homeowners from the transverse street - in order of houses along one party. Renu Bashmachnik pays "from his house"; Several houses adjacent to the dwelling of this Renu belong to some "nobility", which is no longer said about. About the following houses do not say that they are adjacent to the houses of the "nobility". Since it does not specify that at home "adjoin the previous one," one can assume that there is a break between them - the alley? Intersection on the other street? A wasteland, not yet built or formed after the development of ruins? Hard to say.

Then the Agatha House is on the list, sisters Jean Mason, then - Rishar from Wales, Jean Mason, Brother Agatha. In the series of listed buildings there is a new gap.

Next, there are somewhat clearly adjacent to each other houses: housing from the whirlpool, a bricklayer, a guillome from Kostonna, the widow of the archaeus from Montreus, who pays for three houses. In the lists from other registries, archeus is again found, the deceased carpenter. In 1261, one of these three houses was owned by the Evrian carpenter, the second is the archaeus widow, and the last one is "Mal Tinketus".

And again breaking in the middle of the houses. The list continues the house of Rishara Plaster, which previously belonged to the Masonicist, the house of Nicola Lombard, a bookseller, Bratzov, Berto-son-in-law "Clara Medica", can be recognized under the name of Brato from Commury (1257) or Berto Larring (1257) . The next house belongs to Richard An Englishman who replaced the auspices of the roofer. Rishar Englishman lived in this house in 1258, in the register of this year it is clarified that he is the prosecutor of St. Bernard (that is, the Monastery of St. Bernard is present in trials or in other cases), it will also be called "Master Richar". Then there is a house of Jerles writer.

Again, a gap in the listing of houses named by adjacent, then the house of Amelena of the Maslovente, which previously belonged to the "preacher", and two houses for which Girard from Burgundy is paying. These accurate, but dry information give an idea of \u200b\u200bthose who contributed to the flowering of the city, and at the same time cause questions.

First, in terms of conventional buildings of this part of the transverse street. The registry compiler follows its eastern side towards the north, since in 1276 it was said that Berto owns the house between the crucible street and the street of Alexander England; This corresponds to the part of the street, which is included in the ownership of the Abbey of Saint Genevieve. The list contains five groups of houses on this side of the street, perpendicularly intersectable by other streets that outline five blocks. Thus, it is possible to define the first quarter located between Versailles Street and Bon-Puy Street, the second, of three houses, between Bon Puy Street and Alexander English Street, the third quarter (five houses) between Alexander England Street and a crucible street, fourth ( Six houses) - between the paved street and St. Nicholas Street. The last quarter was to be placed between the streets of St. Nicholas and Saint Genevieve. The gap in the enumeration corresponds to the intersection on the other street. Thus, the king of abbey, who made these lists for registries, accurately determined all the houses by their owners and on the street on the street. Consequently, no built-up plot could avoid the taxation by serving, relying on the payment of landowner.

Registry contains information about the owners, but it is impossible to say with confidence whether they live in this house. The name given to them with baptism, and the nickname; Women are often satisfied with the name only. These nicknames were not established as surnames, which is talking about Berto's proverb: "Larringets", "from commercial", "son-in-law ...".

Is it possible that these nicknames contain some other direct information about their owner? An example of Berto forces to believe, although caution should be taken. Was the Mason Jean Mason, Brother Agatha? If we assume such an interpretation, then thanks to the archeus-carpenter, we get a group of people of construction professions, close neighbors, who worked together during the construction of a quarter. If you give nicknamed literal importance, the bookseller and clerk live on the street, that is, the correspondence, and there is nothing surprising: the University Quarter is experiencing a boom. Other instructions on the owners of these houses in 1248-1276, hoped from various registers, talk about "Matrah" - tests in the service of monasteries, like, for example, Madre Richard An Englishman. Passing at the most ordinary street on the left bank of the Seine, you can meet people of the most different public situation.

Notes in registers also show that these houses do not remain in the hands of the same family - there are only four inverse cases, but sometimes it is difficult to trace the family property when there are no confined surnames, and the marriage unions and kinship (if not included in the explanation to the name ) Not listed. With such a level of information - at the same time very accurate and scant - it is not worth and dreaming in detail to learn about the lifestyle in these houses. The family circle of everyday life remained behind the scenes, because in no way was the feudal for whom the main problem was to know who to take money for land plots, and retain the preemptive right to land and real estate.

Perseverance, with which in a rapidly growing city, the feudal primacy is preserved, forces to change some aspects of this advantage towards simplifying the calculations. This was done successfully, from the point of view of the feudalists, which retained rights and income, since the adaptation of management relied on the permanent growth of the city. The game between urban and rural feudal is possible because there is a powerful wave of immigration consisting of workers, artisans, craftsmen and merchants - all those who hoped to find the best life in the city.

Paris - City of Free People

The city attracted the inhabitants of the surrounding villages (what the nicknames formed from the names of these villages), provinces and visitors from all over the world they say. In the XII and early XIII century, the population of the city took place according to special treaties. Land owners offered them to tenants ("hosts") on favorable terms: feudal petas were reduced to once and for all the established monetary lies, provided benefits for commodity duties or other payments from commerce, judicial protection. For example, from a document defining the rights and income of the road caretaker of the Abbey of St. Genevieve - a monastic official, in the conduct of the streets in the possession of the abbey, it is known that the owners were released from the tax on the purchase of wine and grain for personal use, while other residents should have been Pay duties. It is possible that some owners were delivered from all filters, except for the year. Such benefits were supposed to attract wealthy owners who could finance the construction of the house. In this sense, in Paris, they received the same way as in other cities of the West, thus attracting new settlers.

The settlement under the contract was widespread in the XII century. So, in 1137, a woman named Ghent ordered to build a house and oven from Champo. The contract indicates that the "hosts" live in the house. In the list of revenues expected by the bishop or abbot of Saint-Maglowar in the middle of the XII century, the lifts paid to the hosts.

The owners live next to the people of Feudal, without mixing with them. If you read the archives, it can be seen that they constituted two different categories. The owners can also be serfs - another important legal category. For feudal dependence was not at all perceived as a legal relic of this, in particular, evidenced by the conflict between the Abbey of Saint Genevieve and two serfs from the village of Vanwe. Tibo and Odon achieved the cancellation of personalized lifestament on four days (such a lifting was a sign of non-free), but their sons were still prohibited to become trials without permission of the senor, and their children were married outside the estate; After the death of his senir, they had to go to the disposal of his suzerane and were obliged to pay "alex" for the needs of Feodala. In general, there is a lot of shipping and public contempt even in such a lightweight form of serfdom. Without a doubt, the owner's status looked enviable, although, for the lack of direct evidence of the contracts, we do not know in detail about obligations imposed on them.

It is clear that in the first third of the XIII century, the preservation of this humiliating personal status seemed to the senites less important than the need to control and speed up the settlement of the city, counting on future profits. It is now difficult to judge how attractive contracts for the settlement and consequences of relocation to the city. The scope of this movement can be assessed, noting that by the middle of the XIII century in the major monastery possessions of Paris and his districts allowed the redemption of serfs, thus acquired, thus for money personal freedom. The serfs from the Royal Domain were released in 1246-1263 in the Paris region and in the area of \u200b\u200bLana. Metropolitan monasteries could only follow their example. In the abbey of Saint-Germain de Preview, this process was completed in 1250. The inhabitants of this suburbs were liberated from the need to ask for the consent of the senor to marry outside the feudal possession and from the payment of the Senor of a special magnitude for the right to transfer property to their family. These freedoms cost 200 livra, which stakeholders pledged to pay. The abbey retained the rights to Earth, to accomplish the justice, as well as the right to charge for the use of a furnace and a mold for wine.

The Abbey of Saint Genevieve provided its fortress freedom in 1248. Two acts stored in the Kelary book concerned the inhabitants of Saint-Marseille and the Saint-Medar - villages, not included in the city's space, as well as the inhabitants of the village of MON, included with the abbey and its buildings within the city.

The first text contains a list of sixteen people who must abbey 200 livres for liberation. They undertake to pay each year, at Martyn Winter, 50 Livres up to the repayment of debt, and their property is provided. Abbey-Senor, however, reminds that these people should always respond to his call. Selyan bought their personal freedom, but they remain addicted to people, like all other lenniks. The second act contains the names of sixty three people, often relatives - wives and husband, parents and children, brothers and sisters. Everyone is liberated from the Yarma of Personal Slavery, but there is no speech about buying or about the debt. The act details the feudal rights that are still brought over these people. Abbey peaks justice: Lennici is subject to Senior Court for Minor Offenses and Serious Crimes, with the exception of cases considered by the king (insulting the greatness, counterfeitness), for the abbey of Saint Genevieve has the right to make death sentences. It is also a landowner, charges the lifts and grant of the military needs of the king; In the latter case, the abbey allocates the required amount, and then returns it to himself, distributing tax payments between people subordinates. These people should be at the call of their senory. On the first day, they are at their own expense to participate in court sessions. If the meeting is delayed, they must remain, but then receive a daily fee of six days. In the last paragraphs, marriage issues of liberated peasants are negotiated. If they are married with a serf or serf from another possession, then again fall into the fortress dependence. Both acts complement each other. The first is the consent of the heads of families. It shows that Selenian has property: personal slavery was not synonymous with deep poverty, although it was unbearable, as they say efforts taken to liberation. The act also provides the cost of this procedure. In the second text, it is described in detail about the consequences of liberation for families and obligations towards the Senor, which are saved for them. Among the liberated, there are heads of families whose names are mentioned in registers as owners of urban homes. Thus, by the middle of the XIII century, Paris's population consisted exclusively from free people, of course, dependent debtors, but who had gained dignity and promoted their social status.

Joy and misfortunes of a big city in the late Middle Ages

The period of intensive transformations of the urban space and approval of the legal status of citizens ended, and in the second half of the XIII century, Paris continued its development. The suburbs were inhabited and built up, the city began to go beyond the limits of his walls. But his growth was uneven, as they say public works carried out in the second half of the XIV century on the orders of the king and the city authorities.

Among these transformations should be emphasized those that affected the contours of the urban wall. On the right bank of the Seine, the city was growing greatly, spilling out for the city trait of the XIII century. When Karl V, which raised the defense capability of cities, ordered the protection of the capital's protective structures in order, it became clear that the fenced space was needed on the right bank, which was done. On the left bank, the king and city magistrates were limited to the modernization of the old wall, without changing its contours, because there were few urban areas outside its protection. But now the harmony between the two shores was lost: the right bank, denoted on the plans of the XVI century as the "city", was caused by its dynamic development a change in urban outlines, expanding its influence.

In the same period (the second half of the XIV century) on the system of estates and parishes was prevented by military administrative geography. In the city, the quarters, which are known from the tax documentation of the XV century, as they served as the basis for collecting assistance and forced loans. Each quarter that corresponded to the detachment of the urban militia, was divided into fifth shelter, and every half-seater - for dozens led by a decade. These were areas managed by urban notables who knew which streets were in their jurisdiction. Tax registers were drawn up taking into account these knowledge distributed between the heads of quarters and the municipal and royal authorities. It was enough to call the quarter to understand what quarter is we talking about. In these lists of Paris taxpayers, there is not almost a single topographic instruction - a wonderful example of oral knowledge, allowing residents to well-oriented in organized urban space.

The decline of cities in the first half of the XV century, no doubt, has accelerated the process that encouraged to make the administrative order in the capital clearer and more clear.

The first half of the XV century was for Paris a terrible time. The ubiquitous economic recession weakened trade and handicraft production. The centenary war with England, especially after the defeat during Azenkur in 1415, aggravated the tragic consequences of the Civil War between the Armagnac and Burguignons, which began with the murder of Louis Orleans in 1407 and resumed after the murder of John Feafless in 1417. Paris captured the swirl of political catastrophe, reinforced by the madness of Karl VI. The capital was included in the English-Bourgignon territory, and after the conclusion of the contract in True in 1420, Parisians hoped that the young Henry VI, the English king of the Lancaster dynasty, will create favorable conditions for the restoration of the world, and with him - lost prosperity. In fact, everything turned out otherwise. Karl VII managed to conquer the capital, which once renounced him, and from 1437 he decided to return the former magnificence to the huge city, which he did not love him, but the political importance of whom the state inspired by the state. At first, it was necessary to rebuild the city, partially destroyed and abandoned by its inhabitants: during the years of crisis and wars, he lost half of the population. By the end of the XV century, Paris, restored and active, began to grow and develop again.

From now on, the kings, like the city authorities, tried to send and control his expansion. Although they did not manage to agree on financing the construction of a new wall that meets all the requirements of fortification and military science, they tried to limit the splashing of the city outside its walls. In particular, the state trucks with the consent of the municipality decided to prohibit artisans to settle in the suburbs in search of space and less strict control from the workshops. Coercion did not have any action. But we are not important to us, but the measure itself. In the end of the Middle Ages, Paris becomes the subject of research and projects, and it is no coincidence that the first reached our plans of the city dated the beginning of the XVI century: now the authorities wish to have an idea of \u200b\u200ball the city in order to better control it. Almost dead, and then rebeling the capital inspires some concerns. And the main thing is the royal power, as the municipal government, knows that it is impossible to allow the city to grow and expand without any program. From now on, Paris is no longer granted to the will of its inhabitants.

Parisian at home

How did Parisians focused in urban space? The point of view of the power of it is possible to find out: it is displayed from administrative and judicial documents. These views would have completed the opinion of ordinary citizens. But we have little direct sources at our disposal. However, several indirect evidence can be represented (which may have to interpret otherwise with the development of research).

Lawsuit on the boundaries shed light on difficulties generated by various forms of organization of space. Senyors followed the preservation of their rights to urban overtakers, the residents took care of them much less and could hope that thanks to the straightening rates for some time they will take care of, and even drop ash. Thus, the contours of the urban wall - an ancient and indisputable material confirmation of the borders between the city and the suburbs - in the XVII century, there were complaints from the seniors who owned the lands through which the city shaft was held. In 1647, the Abbey of Saint-Germain de Prés stated that he did not give up all his rights to the land, occupied by the wall, but only agreed to use them for a common good. Inside the city walls, jealously followed the boundaries between censors, since their transfer could reduce the territory of one estate in favor of a competitor's estate. But the city and its residents sought to forget, even erase these borders. As a result of the transfer of property and rebuildings, some building could be at the crossroads of two or three overall districts. Then it was necessary to determine the court, which area of \u200b\u200bthe house refers to each of the districts. To avoid disputes on house facades, sometimes shielded the shield with the coat of arms of the Orthodoxy district to which they belonged to what was material evidence of the Senior authorities. Sometimes in the bridges were driven by columns with an indication of the border of the district, for example "Stone of St. Benedict." In the XV century, this column, which represented a comic figure and separated by the "maintenance of St. Benedict and the maintenance of St. Genevieve," was transferred in favor of St. Benedict. The Abbey of Saint Genevieve demanded to return the column to the previous place, confirming its requirement of testimony. Nikola Blondo says that he ran to play "in sticks or other games where it was necessary to beat on this column"; One bricklayer explains that the column served as a meeting place; The third witness speaks of his use: when the parishioners carried the coffin on the cemetery, then the column was used to relax on the road. These texts show that the information was transmitted orally and were based on everyday practice and that justice sometimes resorted to them. But such information in the Middle Ages was not fixed systematically on paper. Here something recorded, there - no, and then find out why.

Reporting itself when buying or selling at home or rent, Parisians rarely indicate their arrival. In land documents, it is always indicated only by the estate in which the property is located. But we are unknown, whether it was not the case to make a document to such clarifications, whether the residents themselves are not accustomed to provide such information, although the arrival with their church and the cemetery was one of the centers of everyday life.

Even more surprises the inaccuracy of topographic designations related to real estate, in land: they are often the most common character, limited to an indication of the street. Sometimes the church or monument is mentioned as a reference point, but often such documents before climbing are concise. The exact location is determined by neighbors on both sides of the house, which is the subject of the act, is, that is, the names of the owners of neighboring houses. To correlate this with a topography of any street to then follow the development of its development, is a lubrica case. Even at that time it was difficult to avoid mistakes and confusion, and for historians, the recreation of topography is the process of long and unreliable. This can lead to a violation of the perception of a medieval city: too clinging for something unshakable and recognizable, you can sample a certain picture, implying unchanged, while the city is indispensable, adapted and rebuilt. But if we can get lost in medieval Paris, without finding the main streets and major buildings, really Parisians of that time waited the same trouble?

In other words, did the Parisians know their city?

It is exactly that they recognized the city when they participated in the festivals and processions, held throughout its territory. They knew the space adjacent to the fortress wall, where military teachings or mass games were held, they knew somehow equipped the banks of the river with walls and stairs (in the texts it was said - "steps") and sandy shames - wide and open lowlands that served to store goods , as well as place for walking; They were known routes of large and small processes, to participate in which they are persistently invited. With everyday displacement, they, no doubt, were focused on large church or royal buildings, as well as on cristes installed on the squares and intersections. However, the true knowledge of the whole city was not characteristic of all Parisians. Their horizons were limited to the space where their lives passed, but inside these frames they knew the streets well, at home, people.

In fact: shopkeepers and merchants, minor office employees, respectable canonons and their servants, master of workshop, lacquer or artisan - everyone had to know a good quarter in which they lived and worked, as well as their neighbors; These knowledge was acquired empirically. In some judicial documents, where testimony or recognition is given, it is said about people who made it difficult to call the street, and the more accurate address, but those who invited to take away those who interrogated them. Of course, the defendants were not only Parisians, but also visitors who were leaving in the entire space of the capital; They could dissolve in it, disappear.

People from other cities or even those who lived in another quarter could not find the house they need, without contacting the neighbors. So they were forced to declare themselves. This served as a guarantee of universal security, since everyone immediately was warned about the presence in the quarter of the strangers. The request for information allowed the inhabitants to ask the traveler about the purpose of his coming, about the people with whom he wants to see. Such a form of collective ownership of the near district is explained by reluctance clearly and clearly indicate by signs or landmarks of the names of the streets. It is very uncomfortable for outsiders, but reliably for locals.

However, the unwillingness to make his own world-opening and understandable for others contradicted the administrative and political needs of the Paris authorities. Municipal officials, as well as magistrates from the Shatle, the Residence of the Royal Preview, needed addresses or at least indisputable landmarks. The collection of taxes and filters based on the knowledge of the inhabitants and their income contributed to a clearer identification of streets and buildings, and the authorities worked on that all taxpayers be marked at accurate addresses. Finally, the land market, in particular land rental rents, also encouraged clarity: the names of the streets should be unequivocal, so that no confusion arose with the location of houses. But the undervaluation opposition was stubborn.

Numbering of houses and signs with street names, all this system, understandable to us today, was established only in the XVIII century. Before the location of the house on the street, it was possible to determine the signs - drawn or carved on the wall, namalo on a suspended board, but in the Middle Ages they were not in every house, and we do not know exactly how such images were selected. Most researchers believe that the owners have established and changed them completely freely; However, rare certificates show that the Senor could intervene here and allow or prohibit the change of a sign, which is a new owner in favor of his own taste or for the sake of reflection of the genus of its activities. But the change could cause confusion, because the house can not be found under the new sign or because the same image was already on this street.

Despite the attempts to control the siders and an increase in the number of identifying images by the end of the Middle Ages, such a system did not give full coverage of houses in the whole city. The streets became more painfully, but more convenient from this did not become, since they met the same signs. The exact address is at the same time progress and loss of freedom, because the judges, tax collectors and other government officials can learn and find. The slowness of the development of clear and complete system of designation is due not to so much inability to the organization or osnosis, how many deliberate behavior of the community of the streets wishing to preserve their power in their limits. Even in the XVIII century, the names with the names of the streets so often disappeared at night that the names decided to carve in stone.

Similarly, it is difficult to find out how they were perceived in the city of the distance: what was considered distant, and what - included in the near circle. According to the documents, Parisians, it seemed to be closed themselves in close Mirka nearby neighbors, which expanded to the arrival framework on Sundays, on holidays and at the moments of important family events - the birth of children, weddings or funerals. But other sources show that the Parisians were not houses. Sometimes they retained ties with nearby villages or wheeled around the surrounding roads - on affairs or heading into pilgrimage. And they looked around throughout the city. So you should beware of simplified conclusions.

Another time confirms the need to ask questions even what seems obvious.

How do we, modern people, understand what it means to live in space, which is locked with the onset of the night and which the workshops are patrolled? The attitude to this, of course, changed depending on the time - military or peaceful. In the usual time, that is, when the city's military safety and the world in the kingdom provide common calm, the gate is locked only for the night, and during the day they direct people and goods. The closure of the gate gives first of all the feeling of peace and serenity. In periods of instability or military threat, as, for example, in the middle of the XIV century, and then almost all of the first half of the XV century, the city authorities and the Royal Preview littered several gates to facilitate control and supervision of the city's relationships with the outside world, focusing all the movement On several gates. How was it perceived by more or less strict "conclusion"? It turns out that if the fence and reassured Parisians who feared the attacks of enemies or robbers, she still tried over the course of their daily life.

Usually, intercourse with the nearest settlements were numerous and regular. Everyone who, on property or home affairs, in need of trade or their position, circated between their quarter and suburb or the province, tried to calculate the time of the way so as not to find themselves at the city feature with the occurrence of the evening. Careless and unlucky found shelter on the bodies. One hint made casual during the same trial, talking about this certainly the usual situation. At the end of the XIV century, the prosecutor of the Odenis college introduced expenses on the post, for he was late for the closure of the city gate, returning from a college trip; During the trial in which Master's college accused him of various abuse and waste, the prosecutor of the vinyl was not for being late - a small trouble, apparently, the usual thing, and for the exaggeration of these unforeseen expenses that should have been much more modest.

When the number of active urban gates was limited in the interests of security, congestion occurred in the remaining open, and the normal conditions of movement and maintenance of road quality were not respected. One document contains confirmation. Here, we are also talking about the trial that happened in 1357. It is opposed to each other residents of Street-onor and the surroundings of the gate of the same name and a caretaker. Residents refuse to pay a fine for dirt on the streets - the undisciplinary, which the caretaker wants to shove. The defendants object to that dirt comes from a variety of two-wheeled carts that pass there. They are often poorly closed, and garbage and garbage, which are transported to the street. However, since this year several urban gates are locked, the number of garbage trucks, exporting garbage on the dump outside the city has greatly increased, and local residents are unable to keep track of each and correct the case when the movement is tight.

In general, if we, after a few centuries, it is difficult to comprehend the functioning of the urban space, the people of that epoch are perfectly mastered and used all its capabilities. The estate, arrival, quarter - all this was fully fit in the head at the inhabitants, and the random passers-by or "guests of the capital" was clear enough. We will focus on the street, and we will open other important aspects and complementing each other.

Chapter Second

Street scenes: wonders and dangers of Paris life

Paris street scenes already in the Middle Ages were present in the visual arts and literature, who chose this city for their plots. They are romantic or fun. Here we compare these humorial and colorful images with the fact that, firstly, they report more stringent sources, and, secondly, with what you can learn from documents that did not know the purpose of a description or study of the street life of the capital. Thus, the daily life of Parisians can be considered at a different angle of view.

Images and literary texts: Adhesive testimony

Picturesque images that have come down to this day, in particular in manuscripts, are small, but very remarkable. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe medieval images can be made up on miniatures in the "Life of St. Denis" manuscript, dated the beginning of the XIV century, and for miniatures in the "rich part-stock of the Duke of Berry", created a century later.

The first set consists of a miniature that occupy a whole page. The upper part of about two thirds of the page is devoted to one of the episodes of the life of the first bishop of Paris. If the image of the saint is placed in the center or nearby from the capital, then the city itself is simply depicted in the form of a wall - round, cutting bobbits, with the openings of the gate, its name is indicated above it. The image of the city is purely symbolic, you should not search for information about medieval Paris in this picture. But at the bottom of the page contains much more specific images, in particular, an important landmark of the city is the Sena River, as well as a large bridge and two sites going through it. For the artist, this is the case of portraying a street scene, played by passersby and shopkeepers for their shelves. These miniatures of the first third of the XIV century create an idea of \u200b\u200bthe liveness of the streets, depict people's classes, which are small about the texts in the texts, in particular ways of moving goods: they are worn on the back, carry on the street on the carts, are transported on the courts along the river. The picture of the lives of citizens is supplemented and types of leisure: boating on the river, when the townspeople drink and having fun, or the crowd of the crowd on the bridge, staring at the guide of bears.

In another, later series of images are shores of the Seine, the types of the Louvre and the Nelskaya Tower, illustrating the calendar in the "rich part-stock of the Duke of Berry" - the masterpiece of the Limburg brothers, created at the beginning of the XV century. Twelve miniatures correspond to the twelve months of the year, they are devoted to any kind of rural work and form a calendar, which is opening, as it should be, all of chance. Artists use a technique that creates the illusion of reality to achieve their goal: in this case, their intention is to glorify the duke of Berrho, the Customer Customer, and therefore they introduce castles and the Palaces of the Duke to the real landscape, which should hit and delight, since the palaces and Landscapes are very similar to the real. With such accuracy, the views of Paris at the beginning of the 15th century were captured by the sake of solving two tasks: illustrate the work, corresponding to a certain month of the year (for example, haymaking on the coast of the Seine), and portray one of the magnificent locks that the Duke of Berrhi possessed in order to anticate its power.

Two these series of Paris species are what can be expected from most medieval images of the city: either these are the real elements included in the overall symbolic and schematic plan, or this is a picture approximate to a specific landscape. For medieval Parisians, the wall surrounding the capital expresses its essence, the river, the labor of carriers and artisans is clearly talked about the big city and that there is a wonderful work. In the texts, this is expressed directly. So, in one poem of the XII century, the type of Paris from the Montmartre hill is described: "And the river Sayna's river was described, that Velmi Wair was, and at the same way, many vineyards", and in another related to the same era, a more general view of the city is given : "And the Paris, a wonderful degrees, and many churches, bell tower and noble abbey, and said Seine ... and mills who have been cleaned, and rooks, bringing bread, wine, salt and wealth of great."

The capital, its wealth, buildings and residents served as the theme for various works in verses and prose. Thus, the list of Paris churches is listed in a small poem to the story of a husband who is looking for his wife, lost in a big city, and copesting it from passersby. Everyone sends it from one church to another, as the husband thinks his spouse went to pray. In jokes (Facki) and the riddles on the stage are the capital and Parisians; In Kalasbrahs, jesting etymology is given; In Grhoteskaya, to a certain extent invented statistics, the number of colors sold with flowers and the number of messes ordered is mixed. Fackii was built, for example, by such a rule: to describe wedding from the wedding in the church to the wedding feather and entertainment, happily converts this joyful event using only the names of signs from houses. Already in the XIII century, the genre of urban literature appeared, which had a great success until the beginning of the 20th century, - "Crys of Paris", compiled by the poet Gilome de Willnev; In his poem, the author describes the street lucky, the screams called and admire the yawa in front of the goods of all kinds that they are, here, only hand a hand. In the same era, Ruitfef for fun wrote a kind of sketch - a call speech of the seller of the miraculous drugs, consisting of additives, jokes and appeals to zevakov to attract and retain buyers, - all this was already well worked in Paris XIII century.

Descriptions of the capital are also evidence of the era, and one of the most famous belongs to Peru Hilbert de Mets. He was a correspondence of books and, perhaps, decorated some of them miniatures. He had the opportunity to collect and bring together the texts of different authors, which he points to the title of his work. German or Flemandes, he was born in 1350-1360s and certainly studied at the University of Paris around the 1380s. It was known in his time a professional, which allowed him to become a librarian of the Duke of Burgundy. He lived in Paris from 1407 to 1434, but his description of the capital created in Grameon, in East Flanders (he had a beautiful mansion). In this description, compiled by more or less recent memories, Paris appears to the end of the XIV - the beginning of the XV century, when he was still a happy and prosperous city. The testimony of Hilbert contains many important information, but we are now interested in its description of the streets. In the title of the second part of the book it will be specified that it will be about Paris 1407: the author will spend the reader on the island of Sita, then on the left bank of the Seine - "The high part of the city, where schools are placed," and, finally, on the right bank - "Lower Part Cities in front of Saint-Denis. " This is the classical division of Paris into three parts, and the author decided to describe each of them, listens to the streets, churches and majestic buildings, as well as other structures, decent surprise and admiration. Let's see how he characterizes Paris streets.

In general, Hilbert de Metz simply lists them, but sometimes accompanies the name notes. Clarifications about two streets on the island of Site talk about what they were associated with the connoisseurs of Paris of the time: Glade Street, where "Girls" are placed, and Pellelet Street, where the beds are made. On the left bank: Bruno - there in schools are taught by canonical law; British Street, where good hack players live; Ferr Street, where art is studying. There were indeed educational institutions in the Faculty of Arts (this word was denoted by the study of Latin language and grammar, philosophy, rhetoric and all literary and scientific disciplines, the development of which was preceded by the study of theology, rights or medicine). But such instructions, unfortunately, very little here.

But by moving to the right bank, the author provides us with much more information, creating an image of streets and describing the classes of their inhabitants. Twenty-eight notes are distributed in this way: the market, including grain, bread and flour rows; Trading rows and shops where they sell the bird; Milk row and storming where butchers live. Hilbert also reports on Saint-Jean-An-Grev, where they sell the hay, about Vennery, where they sell oats. It lists several productions of luxury objects: Tabletry (ivory products), Saint-Onevo Gate (Sukonchiki), Street Saint-Martin (Bronze Treatment), Kenkampua Street (Jewelery Workshops), Kurari Street (Diamonds and other precious stones) , Vuarri (glass products). He also mentions the shops selling expensive goods (haberdashers on the Ferr Street), as well as on the grounds for the sale of heavy loads (for example, the wood traded from the pier Saint-Germain, the construction forest - for Morotorri) and related industries (wizards manufacturing chests and Lari, lived in the graveyard Saint-Jean); The crafts associated with iron are listed: manufacturers of nails and sellers of wire lived on Marivo Street, gunsmiths - on OMI, textiles - on Lombard Street, lecherniki - on Cordonry, where shoes were also manufactured. Hilbert de Metz celebrates Saint-Denis Street, where grocers, pharmacists and cords are placed; Street next to the Church of Saint-Jacques, where scribes live; The street of the Commmers, where women live, serving servants and maids, live; He mentions Messtrels Street (where the Menstrel School is located) and does not forget about those streets of the right bank, where prostitutes live: Bour-L "Abbe, Bai-U and Kur-Robert. List and comments to it show that the occupation of residents does not Always corresponds to the name of the streets. Missing is likely to be explained by the fact that the union took place on a personal initiative, for family reasons or practical considerations, and not on the established rules. Associations of artisans over the years were modified, and those that describes Hilbert de Metz, consistent with the state Paris at the very beginning of the 15th century. In memory, the author crashed not just the type of streets, but the extraordination of these associations by the nature of activities related to the quality of work or with the number of workshops; it struck him, he recalls this, regretted the past, since the real capital Much severely - walked 1434 years old. Hilbert speaks of Paris in his manner, but at the same time as any historian in the Middle Ages - with constant admiration.

In fact, the distinctive feature of this medieval city is the ability to cause blissful delight, and even comic plays about this "miracle" is distinguished by a soft and innovation irony. All cities had their own strifiers, who extolled the magnificence of their city; Place patriotism was widespread in the Middle Ages. But Fimiam smoking Paris, first of all, praised his deputies, considering this quality as worthy admiration, and not as something monstrous. If the cities as a whole shocked the traveler with a collection of wealth and the number of people, their permanent revival, the Paris streets were an exceptional spectacle, rich in all kinds of events worthy of narration. It is not necessary to lower these stories or disregard them, despite their errors and inaccuracies, for the study of such literary evidence lifts in the flesh and blood urban history.

Scattered instructions on everyday life are also contained in other texts. In particular, in judicial documents, testimony or recognition of criminals. These documents sometimes say that what happened on the street, in the house or in the shop, and with such details that they would not meet in other sources.

Prose of Parisian Life

The usual course of life for most of the Parisians is considered unworthy of attention due to its very tribality, and therefore almost never mentioned in written sources.

The seduction is great to use information relating to a later time, and fill the emptiness with substrate descriptions, which, it is difficult to deny this, may well correspond to reality. But we will not succumb to the temptation. But if in the sources it is noted that one or another aspect, recorded in later documents, has already existed in the Middle Ages, then such direct instructions acquire extreme importance. In addition, a patient search for documents sometimes leads to the discovery of inexplicable texts, to interpret which follows with caution.

Thus, in the register of Etienne Baual, where the statutes about hundreds of Parisian handicraft workshops are collected, Parisian Prevory wished to include the rate of road duties from merchants passing through Paris or arriving in the capital, as well as the third, lost part in which the privileges of large land possessions were stipulated. There is a sum of duty for travel on a small bridge. Among other trading duties are two interesting points in the section of the Paris "passage roads", that is, duties charged to pave roads, streets, bridges and travel in the Paris district. Article 45 said: "The goat is not subject to a small bridge no duty, because when a goat is going through a small bridge, it is beaten by a battle between the horns, near the corrugation, but it is impossible to beat him in the forehead." In the previous article, it is specified that the monkeys of juggler are not subject to any duties, but the juggler is obliged to make them show the collector of some room. These specific comments immerse us into the world, which is very different from our and which we are no longer quite capable of understanding. The article on monkeys is very colorful. "To pay a monkey coin", that is, to arrange a performance in payment for the passage, then it still didn't mean to "deceive, not pay," because it was about a little more common and highly appreciated by fun; The juggler could and himself fulfill some trick or read poems. This article is completely understood, but the article about the goat remains a mystery. Registry publishers have added a note that does not oblige them to anything, because it says: "This custom comes from prejudices associated with these animals." The historian does not know how to interpret a similar act, but it believes that such a custom could have prosecuted well-defined goals: the threat to bold or kill the animal allowed the collector of the duty to agree on the refusal to comply with the ritual in exchange for an increase in the tariff.

Paris streets in regulatory documents

Very soon, the city authorities decided to bring order in the content of streets, bridges and public buildings Ordonans, royal letters and Parisian deposits tried to streamline the use of public spaces. For example, urban authorities wanted to establish strict rules for the placement of trays with a commodity, and in one decision of the Parisian parliament, artisans occupying the most place: shoes, banks, old women, hawks, polishers, speeds, manufacturers of hardware goods and fried meat traders. In another text, from 1391, it is referred to "Deluga, Canvas and Canopies" of Sukchikov, who clutter the street. Sukontiki refused to remove them, because these canopies defended the cloth from the sun, dust and rain. But, on the other hand, customers complained to Paris navigated that the counter shaded and they could not see the goods. The preserved texts relate to the latest centuries of the Middle Ages, but only confirm, complement or clarify earlier documents and deposits. Orders to remove the streets and clean them from garbage and garbage are witnessed at least from the XIII century. However, supervision, cleaning and repair was expensive.

To finance these works, the municipality, that is, the merchant foreman and Eschemen, charged the tax against goods, pronounced through the capital or in it for sale. True, the receipts from these taxes were often used for other purposes, but cannot be denyed and the fact that since the XIII century, the city authorities have realized the need to remove the streets, repair roads when they were broken by passing carts or scotch-proof. Chronist Rigor reports that the streets of the street ordered Philipp August to reduce the stench, caused by mud accumulating on them, and relieve their cleaning. In fact, only a large intersection was laid on this order, that is, the North-South (Saint-Denis Streets and Saint-Jacques Streets), and on the right bank - the East-West (Street-Antoine Streets and St. Ohore). Hanza water traders, that is, the city authorities, engaged in the banks of the river and port zones. On all other streets, everyone had to shut down the part of the road in front of the door of his home, to clean and repair it if necessary. The caretaker of the Royal Roads (or Senior Roads) followed the proper compliance with these requirements, sentenced to the penalty of the banging duties or those who refused to pay.

The existence of the position of the caretaker of the road shows that the importance of this problem was aware of a long time. But in order to effectively fulfill this position, it was necessary to overcome three obstacles.

The first consisted of the existence of feudal caretakers. In the XIII century, the custom and law claimed that the royal caretaker was subordinated to any street, if at least one of the houses on it belongs to the estate, which places his rights to the road, which is reflected in the wording "the king is not divided with anyone," - is available The type of power. But due to the confusion of feudal geography, the royal caretakers could not apply their power everywhere, although it was distributed to most of the streets, and were limited to only a regular reminder to feudal caretakers that should follow the observance of uniform rules regarding the use and maintenance of streets.

The second obstacle partially emerged from the first and was in profits recovered from the roads: occupy a part of the street, that is, to reduce the roadway, it was forbidden, the caretakers stated "interference", they made an expert opinion and either ordered to demolish the obstacle (tray, porch, protruding design) Or, what was happening more often, allowed him to leave in exchange for an annual Rent. Rents and fines were in revenues that the caretaker could try to increase. Penalties contributed to the rigor, rent and compensation for all kinds - to connivance.

The third obstacle was in the high cost of such works and the need to identify plans and global programs to cope with road problems. From the sources it follows that the city and the king upgraded after once, without trying to warn or send, and intervened only when the situation became critical. Complaints and investigations, evidence of damage accumulated and passed to the court, trying to make a fair decision. The case with the cleaning of the skiev's river at the end of the XIV century is a visual example. This river in Paris became a real wastewater. Municipal loans for the financing of work on cleaning and bringing in order of the bed of the Bijevr, laid more than a century ago. But, as stated in the letter of Karl VI in 1390, these funds were used to repair a shuttle at a small bridge. The king ordered his treasurer to pay the planned work to improve the waters of Bijevr, and reminded all his officials that they should take the most severe measures against local residents who violate laws or executing them inappropriately.

In the second half of the XIV century, residents of Saint Genevieve Streets sueded the butchers who settled on this street, because they were thrown on the bridge of animals, which were scored and fresh on the spot, and from this stench spread across the street. After a long trial, which conducted parliament, feudal, in this case, the Abbey of Saint Genevieve, was prescribed to postpone these "slaughters" in the suburbs, on their lands Saint-Marcel, and indicate to butchers that they should store wastewater and waste in closed containers And throw them away for the city feature, and not outside in front of the house.

At the beginning of the XV century, the Mober Square, one of the main trade crossroads of Paris, was literally littered with garbage, for no one was trying to observe the previous rules. They were confirmed in the Ordonance, which explained why you need to clear this area from permanent okalov and make sure that the surrounding residents and users pay their share of the costs of its maintenance. In this case, the unbearable situation was caused by negligence, and most importantly - refusal to pay its part of the expenditures on garbage cleaning. There was nothing new to invented, the authorities were limited to a reminder of the old rules recorded in the Ordonance.

It is difficult to summarize. Pretty scattered, but the only legal sources available to us can be interpreted in two ways. The number of registered violations punished with a fine or confiscation is small - several hundred cases, while Paris's population always exceeded one hundred thousand souls, even on the most black days of the city crisis of the XV century. But by all the court archives we do not have, and incomplete and imperfect information about the policies of collective discipline reflect the constant desire to apply the statutes and deposition in practice. Thus, a certain norm of social life was gradually developed, in which each citizen must respect others, not to pour and not dump the garbage where it fell, not to pollute water sources. It was taken for the rule to demand a financial contribution from any - permanent resident or arrival - who enjoyed roads, because this money had to make the improvement and maintenance of communication in the proper state.

The necessary submission of private interests The common good of the city was filled with a concrete and understandable sense. Without a doubt, it is not worth drawing a terrible picture of a medieval city with impassive mud on the streets, where garbage dump everywhere where only there is a free place. Paris was not always ridden, silent, with dark narrow streets, over which they hung over the second floors of houses, almost not missing light. But you should not imagine yourself and the idyllic picture, clean and colorful, as on miniatures. Both coexisted or replaced each other on the same street depending on the era. Paris Philip is beautiful with rich notables, numerous artisans, dynamically developing, probably well kept, and prosperity, development and desire for order and beauty were inseparable. But in the 15th century, when the many houses were abandoned, destroyed or illegally seized by the poor and vagrants, when the unemployment was raging, when some "absent" for political reasons, fled from the English-Bourginone city to join the dofina party, and others left the city, Because they broke and could not pay debts, then, of course, maintaining the cleanliness of the streets moved to the background. This period includes documents in which they reported that the lacrops turned into cesspools dangerous for everything around. The desire to bring the city in order returned only with peace and security.

The repeated change of phases of decline and the revival throughout the Middle Ages gradually led to the creation of an ordered system. So, establishing a total tax, the city pledged to remove trash and dirt. But the system was installed only with the onset of the new time. It was the city that I had to try to unite the efforts to modernize public places, that is, streets, shores and embankments of the Seine.

Paris Streets: Space of Life, Crimes and Justice

Street, public place, is a continuation of the private space of the house, workshop or shop. In favorites of the shops are "welcomed sedans" - benches installed at the threshold to implement the vital connection between the open space of the street and the inner space of the workshop or shop. Neighbors are aware of everything that happens in every home, any event is discussed on the street, giving their assessment.

Here is an indirect certificate, valuable because it is certainly describes a typical case. In 1333, during the investigation in the case of rape, it turned out that Jacqueline's candle vendor was set as a ten-year-old girl Jaretta to give it to some "Lombard" (Jacqueline argued that he did not know the name of the rapist), and then held her hands, because The girl broke out. The Father of the victim filed to the court, the ride arrested and put in prison, where she expected sentence. This terrible story unfolded as follows. Jeette sat "at the door of his father," that is, on the threshold of the house on Michel-Lekontt Street. A neighbor took her hand and said: "Let's go, inflate me fire and wash the plates." Such relationships were probably in the go between the neighbors: the girl is not busy with anything, she is asked to help the farm in the neighboring house and will not remain in debt. That is why the girl did not suspect anything thin, because she knew her neighbor well.

Street is a familiar space to which various groups of people are socially owned. There is a special form of collective communication, which finds its expression during family events. In sources there are fluent directions for it. After the death of one Cutter, settled in Paris, his hearthritisers have spent six Paris Livra on "dinner arranged for the neighbors on the day of the funeral."

Street is one of those places where they quarrel, find out relationships and gain violence, because there are spectators there, who express a common opinion and in the eyes of which you can cover yourself with glory or shame. Family quarrels often splash out to the street, and then family members and neighbors support one or another side in a smoke or in a fight.

There they immediately sneeze the thieves, who are not easy to catch the order if they are satisfied with small thefts. The thief of a high flight capable of everything to foresee, find a stolenskaya stale, gather in a tavern where you can buy wine, in remote neighborhoods, on the streets adjacent to the urban wall. Criminals, concealing murder on their own initiative or commission, come to look around, look around people, carefully ask them. This was told about the accused in their confessions made in prison under torture, or even at the foot of the gallows to alleviate their conscience.

Street, where crimes and offenses are committed, serves as a place to execute punishments. Royal judges, as well as judges in the service of Señora, use a whole set of public executions, among whom - the initiation of the criminal to a shameful post, when he must first go through the big streets and squares with stops during which it will be sch. In 1336, Breton Fathers Ivon accused the rusty and threatened to set fire to the house and move people; He was sentenced to pass throughout the estate and be carved in several places in the course of the following. Finally, this is the last path of those who lead to the gallows.

However, the townspeople were not on themselves from the hidden and shameful pillars of royal or feudal justice installed on a permanent basis. Residents of the quarter, adjacent to the market, achieved their transfer: although the penalty of the criminal was considered a useful spectacle, the townspeople did not smile at all constantly to have before the eyes of the body, long remaining without burial in the intimidation of potential sinners. A long trial has begun, who has questioned the effectiveness of justice that makes a bet on deliberate intimidation. The deposition of the execution of the execution outside the city walls (the royal gallows in Monfocone) can be viewed as an important stage.

However, the case did not reach it to completely do without punishment of this kind: the feudalists that had the right to endure death sentences, demanded for themselves and the right to have a challenge post and the gallows in their lands in the suburbs. When the court of Lena Saint-Martin-de Shan endured a death sentence, he was performed in Nuzi-les-s: women burned on a fire or burned alive, men spun on the gallows. Bishop Parissky had the right to "cut the ears in Paris, at the cross of Tiru." It was punished for recidivist thieves, and people who received this label forever became criminals. Justice bodies in Paris, from now on, had a shameful post only in Saint-Germain de Pré, but still could use streets for some punishments, such as those who were subjected to blasphemy. Convicts tied to a staircase licked on the platform and fibers through the streets; It was possible to "throw in it with mud and other uncleans, stones or wounded objects," after which he will "stay a whole month on bread and water, and nothing more." Then such criminals in force of the Ordonance dated 1347 were caught in the lips with rotable glands until the teeth were visible.

The death penalty could be subject to animals. In the register of crimes of Saint-Marten for 1317, it is mentioned about the case on Monmodi Street: the pig broke the cheek to a child, which he died. They caught a pig, tried and sentenced to burning, which was performed in Nyazi.

In the street there were accidents of all kinds, about which in judicial sources is not mentioned, since it was not necessary to look for those guilty and punish them. So, in judicial acts, they do not speak of injuries or deaths on the road associated with the passage of the stubborn or wagon, with a view of animals, with stray dogs or pigs. Sometimes such cases declare if doubts arise in the randomness of the wound or death, and these doubts are resolved during the investigation.

The judicial register of Saint-Martin-de-Shan among other examples reflects the desire of the authorities to distinguish with a random one from the punishable. In particular, when detecting the corpse, the bodies of justice ordered to inspect his expert physician to find out whether death was natural. If the body was discovered on the street, it was transferred under Elm, where they left for several days. He was either identified by relatives and relatives and took the body for the appropriate burial, or did not identify, and then the bits of feudal justice were buried. In 1339, a man drowned in the walled well of Saint-Denis. The bailiffs from the Shatle, delivering the body, decided that this case was under the jurisdiction of Saint-Martin justice, and attributed the corpse "Under Elm, in a common place, in order to show His people and give to inspect the sworn surgeon." The doctor decided that death occurred as a result of an accident.

From judicial documents it follows that the police in the modern presentation was not a few. The bailiffs were arresting criminals for the denominations of local residents, the neighbors helped them. The police hoped on the active cooperation of passers-by, neighbors and eyewitnesses. She could also do without the help of colleagues from church judicial authorities.

The level of street crime in those times is not easier to determine than now; Judging by the documents, the picture is grim: quarrels, dianewned, and then - severe car. However, such ideas should be tangled due to the obvious fact: the time when peaceful relations were maintained between relatives, friends and neighbors, not so brightly reflected in the sources as bloody events. Peaceful everyday life balances the cases of open violence: the streets are as a dangerous place, as well as the general space of solidarity and mutual assistance.

Paris Streets: Space of Religion and Politics

Events related to politics, religion and justice were especially reflected in the space of Paris streets in the Middle Ages, which confirms the issue of the route of the prison of criminals and the accused. Criminals, as captured at the crime scene and sent to prison, and those who have already been in custody and whom the bailiffs were led either in the Shatle, or to the residence of the feudal judge, tried to flee and get to the Church - an inviolable peaceful shelter. But since the XIII century, the church no longer wanted to encourage such tricks, and the documented cases show that the last word remained behind a secular court. This is evidenced by the Lechief Abbot in the XVIII century, explaining why the ring on the main gates of the Abbey of Saint Genevieve is hanging much higher than human growth: to get refuge in the church, it was enough to touch the attractive ring - a symbol of entry into a consecrated place. Hanging the ring is too high, the monks no longer risked that their abbey will become a shelter for criminals.

The pardon of prisoners was the act of mercy on the part of the authorities. Such authorities were endowed with the king. The canonons of the Cathedral of the Parisian Our Lady also had the right to Palm Sunday, when they made a congestion from the Abbey of Saint Genevieve to the Cathedral of Our Lady. They stayed before Shatle and sang the anthem "Gloria Laus et Honor". The door opened, and one prisoner was freed. Bishop Parisian on the day of his entry into position also used this royal law.

Daily life was measured by processions and processions related to the holidays of saints in the calendar of the parish, partnership or craft shop. Materials of one trial inform us the details of one local procession. These 21st century documents were preserved, we are talking about the house of the controversial accessory, which was lying in ruins, served as a dump of waste and distributed the stench throughout the district. The process was associated with the fact that the ill-fated house was on the way of following the procession headed by the Canon Bennedict.

Travel routes that regularly used priests and believers were a kind of form of assigning the territory of those who lived and worked. Paris calendar should be considered from this point of view as a temporary spatial organigram. Field studies of Perriz have shown that direct directions can be collected on the routes of tuples of clergymen or processions with the participation of clerics and laity in the territory of the territory, the mastering of which was symbolically confirmed annually. These religious routes regularly included urban streets, as well as the waterway. For example, the clergy of the Cathedral of the Parisian Our Lady, who possessed the prerogatives on parish and collegial churches, followed the boat from the Cathedral to the Church of Saint-Zherwe; There, having served lunch, the canoniki received a lifework, the signs of submission from Clear Saint-Zherwe - Baranov and Cherry for singers from the Cathedral of Our Lady. Similarly, the churchmen from the Cathedral of the Paris's Mother of God sent along the river to the Abbey of St. Victor on the Day of the Holy Memory - July 21.

In addition to traditional processions during large Christian holidays, there were also emergency processes not provided for by the calendar: redemption marches carried out by the court decision or political authorities; chartsions to ask for the end of drought, stopping the flood; Thanksgiving processions to thank the sky for the restoration of the world, the birth of the royal sibling or the recovery of the sovereign.

Depending on the cost-effectiveness of the incident or the importance of a regular holiday in a motorcade, either parishioners, members of the fraternity, honoring their saint patron, or a whole representation of the entire Paris Community, could be included: clergy, authorities and courts, crafts.

Mourning cortices had to include monks, in particular from a begging order: the images of their sorrowless series were preserved at many gravestone monuments. Children were attracted to participation in the grateful processors - the symbol of innocence, which was surrounded by the clergy. Nothing was provided to the will of the case, everyone obeyed the order that determined the goals and shape of the active expression of piety, joy or grief.

The route was also definitely defined, as the wording "at ordinary places" is talking about. So, at the city, representatives of the university - masters and students, the starting point served the Saint-Matyurren church on Saint-Jacques Street, which prayed the sky about Saint-Jacques, spoke out of the abbey of Saint Genevieve; By this case, the power of the Saints of the Saints of Paris - Saint Genevieve and St. Marseille was carried in the city. On the carnival and on Ivanov, the day on the Grevskaya Square, on the shore of the hay, lit a festive fire - there he could not cause a fire.

Among the diversity of festive and religious processions should be allocated such an important event as joining the city of King. These solemn ceremonies developed from the XIV century were very significant events of urban life, they were carefully prepared by the efforts of the city authorities and residents, they financed from the city treasury. These ceremonies were distinguished by the pompration of the processions, the participants were put on bright, colorful costumes, along the way of following the cortex on the squares and the churches were played by theatrical performances and pantomimes, the tables were leaving from food and drink, and even fountains instead of water filled wine. At night, they satisfied the magnificent illumination and dancing, songs and music sounded everywhere. For such luxury festivities, the streets were cleaned to shine, the facades of the houses were decorated with fabrics and carpets, the bridge sprinkled with fragrant herbs and flowers. Festive mood and joy could be expressed, putting the hat, decorated with flowers. These hats so often used that they began to make a special handicraft shop. In a very big city it was possible to create (of course, for a short time) a real magic country. The space of everyday life, usually close and quite dirty, was transformed to accept the sovereign, his family and courtyard. Such solemn entrances glorified the Union of the king with their capital, with all Parisians.

In the "Accounts of the city of Paris" for 1483-1515, the amounts of expenses for twelve solemn entrances of the king and princes are given, five funerals of the Royal Persians, four illumination, six tuples for meeting ambassadors. In 1496, festive illumination on the occasion of the birth of Dofene caused costs for firewood, musicians, bread and wine, which distributed to everyone at the door of the Town Hall, pears, peaches and nuts, drown to children as a sign of joy or scattered from the town hall window. The accounts are also mentioned about the purchase of white wands for bailiffs that held back the crowd on the way of following the tavern from Saint-Denis Street to the Cathedral of the Paris's Mother of God to avoid thrust and riots.

In contrast to these days of organized fun or mourning (which for us here is the same, since all Parisians are designed to participate in the event concerning the king and his family and accompanied by a certain ceremonial, ritual and customs), that is, others have been officially provided and organized. When the street is worried, "Rapting" and rebels. The times of spontaneous assemblies and passage through the city to the house of the hated Nabl, the palace, where the bad king's bad advisers attached, to the arsenal or fortress to arm. The watches of the incendiary speeches of the leaders of the uprising or pacifying publicists of the Magistrates trying to calm the crowd. About such cases is described in the chronicles, they are detailed disassembled in the materials of the trials, which sometimes followed them, or in the disorders about the pardon, which explains how convictedly, molding about mercy, was involved in the rebellion. Here, by definition, it is not about everyday life and the usual atmosphere. Because of its extraordinary, the days of rebounds or repression were described and analyzed in all works on the history of Paris. Such violent, but short events do not create a true idea of \u200b\u200bthe usual course of life in the capital, which is why we mention them only casual.

CHAPTER THREE

Parisians

The history of space leaves the trace, and the city keeps evidence of its past; The history of people who built and transforming space in a large city almost does not leave material traces; The farther in the depths of the centuries the historian is immersed, the smaller his material. We will be clearer: in the sources there are many certificates of medieval Parisians, but they are scattered and incomplete and give only indirect answers to our questions. Such, even if the most meager information is necessary, because they create the basis of what we can say about Parisians in their daily life, and not just as taxpayers or subanese people.

Combine provincials

Our knowledge of the origin of Parisian XIII century is based mainly on their nicknames recorded in applied books, rural registries and other documents, and flow out of the assumption: until the XIII century, that is, the nicknames have not yet been fixed too much, the nickname caused in a written document, It can characterize a person or his relative from the previous generation, meaningful for the family. Combine all these nicknames, classify them, distinguishing the nickname type "from Ivry" or "from Vilneva", "Picardian" or "Englishman", to determine the proportion that they make up the nickname list, then partition them into subgroups - this is the method that I Applied to the nicknames of residents from the left bank of the Seine, having drawn them from documents and combining into groups. Some studies regarding the right bank seems to do not contradict the conclusions made by this indirect analysis.

It is necessary to exercise extreme caution, because this method of studying the flow streams is incomplete and inaccurate. Incurious because the nickname is often unclear. Almost because only a part of people whose nicknames are indicated. In fact, some nicknames indicate a physical feature, the genus of classes, the name given during baptism. Such nicknames (and their more than half) do not give us any instructions on the origin of those who wears them. However, this is the only method available to us.

A small group of people with a nickname "from Paris" represents residents settled in the capital several generations ago. Much more than those who are recorded called the village or a small town. If you look at the map, these names indicate the directions of migration, although inaccuracies cannot be avoided, since some names correspond to several cities, while others now changed. After studying the western part of the left bank, in the possessions of the abbey of Saint Genevieve, I saw that many Parisians of the XIII century came from the surrounding townships, in particular, those that were in possession of the abbey. The big city, no doubt, settled due to the surrounding plains.

It is interesting to note that the whole group of nickname recalls the cities located north of Loire, in the east of France, in Flanders or in Champagne. It seems that some of the new arrivals have already lived in the city, they were engaged in other activities, except for field work, and thus brought their experience in Paris and a variety of skills.

Such a nickname can be a reference to either the city (Lille, is held), or to the province (Picardian, Burgundec). The features of the spontaneum or habit may be displayed in the nickname, so much different from Paris, which characterize the entire person.

There is still a small group of nickname reminiscent of foreign origin. The Anglica is held at the head. Remembering the Normandy and the ownership of plantagenets on the continent, you can wonder what is specifically meant by this word. The Englishman is a native of land outside the royal domain or really arrived from England? In any case, anthroponymy detects a close relationship between two kingdoms. Further go Flemis and Germans, but there are less than the British. The last remarkable feature is almost a complete lack of instructions for southern countries. Thus, if you rely on the information that the nicknames give us, the main population of Paris in the XIII century came from his surroundings, then the capital began to attract people from English, Flemish and even from German lands, in general, Paris remains a major city of North of France.

These first conclusions require clarifications. First, because they are based on a partial base - nicknames of geographical origin, secondly, because they cover only a permanent population living in the city for a long time to acquire house and rent, pay Class and, therefore, depending on various feudal or royal authorities. The study did not affect the part of the population, which consisted of immigrants who had not yet received their angle and did not fit into society, because they were too poor. All functions enamelled in Paris - the Royal Capital, the residence of the Bolshoi University, the extensive metropolis, who gives the work of merchants, artists and manufacturers of luxury goods, attracted many people. Here, travelers and foreigners stopped here on a more or less long time, giving the population of Paris cosmopolitanity, which hit contemporaries.

Effective settlement system

These features (the attractiveness of a large city, a variety of functions, promoting the growth of the capital by the Royal authorities) explains a large number of inhabitants, perhaps the largest in the West: about 1325, upon completion of the great stage of medieval economic lifting, it constituted more than two hundred thousand souls. The size of the city, the number of population turned Paris to the metropolis, which in those days provided the living conditions that are superior to normal norms. For us, this gap, of course, is not so noticeable, as for the people of that era, accustomed to live in a limited environment, where social life is based on personal connections, where everyone knows each other.

Two features are often emphasized in evidence: the value they expresses with the help of images denoting the innumerable (grains in the coins, hair on the head), and the mixing of peoples and languages, as well as social statuses - rich, powerful and notable neighboring with poor, weak and weak and Svetled.

It seems that assimilation in the big city happened pretty quickly. Provincial and "village" forgot about their roots and became metropolitan residents. However, since new "men" and provincials, the contrast between Parisians and Neparjan were preserved. In fact, the flow of immigrants did not dry; The increase in the number of residents is explained to a greater extent by this phenomenon, rather than the natural increase in the population. Thanks to this particular, Paris quickly recovered from the consequences of the epidemic of the plague and the political crisis of the middle of the XIV century. Although general development stopped, but high mortality and the decline in fertility did not lead to a reduction in the population, and the dynamics of the development of Paris did not suffer.

But in the first half of the XV century, at the peak of the urban crisis, the population fell twice and amounted to about a hundred thousand inhabitants. The demographic decline has become a reflection of all the disasters of that time. He was a consequence of "political migration", "the omit", as stated in the documents: after 1418 - departure or flight of "Armagnakov", who joined the dofina's party, then, after 1437, - their return with Karl VII, resulting in Accordingly, the departure of "Burguynon" supported King Lancaster. Of course, such movements of the population directly related to the Civil War were not large-scale phenomena, although it is impossible to give an accurate assessment, but political migration aggravated the social crisis and economic destruction, which was both caused and the consequence of the population reducing.

The population recovered in the second half of the XV century, apparently, the same ways, which was going on the settlement of the city in the XIII century: the main contribution was made by the nearest district and neighboring provinces, with a more noticeable infusion of people from cities and villages located in the Loire Valley, which explained by recent historical events. In the XV century in the names, you can't find the slightest hint of population flows. More numerous and detailed documents give some information about the "small homeland" of some Parisians. Here on such miser, but concrete and reliable instructions and found our conclusions.

The demographic features of the capital in the Middle Ages, both in the times of economic lifting, and in the era of decline, indicate the likelihood of strong ties with villages, their customs and beliefs due to the constant influx of rural residents seeking a better life in Paris. However, they do not say about them. Famous families (who succeeded) became Parisians and forgot about their roots, because in the capital they did not give weight.

Big city absorbs strangers and highlights personality

Paris is a civilization horn, which is rafting people who came from all over the world, a community possessing self-awareness is shown here. These features, common to cities, manifested themselves especially brightly in the metropolis, which was Paris. At the same time, starting from the XIII century, a tradition was approved to determine itself as a person - by name given during baptism, nickname and address, that is, according to the exact location of a person and his house in the city. The development of space and purely urban identification of people walked in parallel.

The transition from personal, more or less sustainable nickname to the surname ended in the XIV century. In written documents, an indication of origin or craft, from which the surname occurred, no longer has a direct attitude towards the person wearing it; Picar (Picardian) still serves the name of the family living in the capital for several generations for several generations, and Bush ("Butcher") may be the name of the honorable adviser to parliament. We add that the names that are the name of the village with the de "particle, do not indicate noble origin. Women seem to be longer called only by name; Coming out married, they did not always take the surname of their spouse, keeping the surname of the Father. These comments, based on written evidence, naturally do not take into account oral, family or workshop customs, thanks to which people distinguished people in everyday life.

We do not know, in what form it was necessary to call ourselves notary, an official or the compiler of a legal act. The rules were clearly different for different types of documents or not yet worked out. For example, in a land plot affecting the interests of people from one block, the personality of the neighbor, referred to to clarify the location of the house on this street, was characterized only in brief, since he was so famous to local residents that it did not make sense to report it in more detail. In such documents, identification of the individual takes a different form - from one name or nickname, from which we are not enough to designate, including the name given during baptism, surname, sometimes references to crafts or social status, and also related links, for example " son-in-law "or" Son ". The tax lists do not indicate a profession or social status, although it would seem, they should be noted that the confusion did not come out with taxpayers. In the submitted books of the end of the XIII - the beginning of the XIV century, many references containing only a person's novel. In judicial documents, much more detailed information both about men and women, at least in comparison with the conciseness of other sources. Details of the age, place of birth, the craft of witnesses and the accused are set out in writing. But in general, it turns out that identification by designating the profession and the address was not established practices, perhaps because such information was not asked systematically.

However, over the past three centuries, the Middle Ages, the trend towards a clearer designation of the rules applicable to everyone for a clear symbol of a person in the city was gained strength because the designation system by name and nickname, which became the name, does not avoid homonymy. 30-40 percent of men received the name Jean; If you add a surname to it, for example, the boulage ("Bullman"), Lefevere ("Solvere") or legitimate ("high"), and dozens of people could get along the same designation. Philippe de Bomanaur raised this problem, speaking of inheritance, taking people with such an unclear identification. He stated that it was necessary to conduct an oral investigation to find out what was being discussed, and in case of failure, to transfer the inheritance to the one who most of all needs, for considerations of mercy. This is one of the problems arising in privacy due to the same names, and for Paris it was very topical.

In fact, in a huge city, problems arising from homonymy took particularly acute character. Senoras and Earns, who were waiting for cash receipts from the owners of houses and inhabitants of estates, as well as representatives of the law enforcement, looking for a suspect or pursuing a criminal, wanted to avoid confusion, otherwise each of these authorities risked to lose their rights and tie their hands. From this point of view, a huge city has become a zone of freedom, because it was impossible to know specifically all people who lived there constantly or temporarily. That is why in the documents the names are increasingly accompanied by clear instructions for profession, related links and residence. The address (already affected by us the question) serves as a distinctive feature. A lot of difficulties arose with him due to the lack of a clear orientation system.

So, in medieval Paris, people could use both homonymy and ambiguities with the designation of their usual residence, in order to start a new life, if the previous one became unbearable due to the lost reputation, the severity of family or other bonds. This is explained by the slowness, with which identification of the identification of the person and the address of Paris and Parishanok. For the overwhelming majority of residents of the capital, it was important for considerations of mutual aid and security, so that people can "calculate" only in their family circle and the nearest neighborhood, they opposed their inclusion in a clear written system, affordable control by the Paris authorities.

Ultimately, it is difficult to say that it was more important in the daily life of Parisians in the medieval period. We are confident that the tendency to the rapid assimilation of the newly arrived and convenient mixing of social statuses eventually turned the most familiar segments of the population in the citizens of Paris with a clearly defined "place selected for stay", and with clearly designated names and the name of the crafts, in the members of the whole community, which He was the capital. However, we do not know whether the Parisians were aware of these trends in the XIV-XV centuries, or they only felt themselves only by residents of a street or another, and their horizon was limited to a round of the family, the closest neighbors and a craft or trade comrades, and whether they were generally Sign the rest of the city where they practically did not have to get out.

The family, the nearest neighborhood, the parish was determined by the framework of everyday life, established relations - for the most part useful and reliable. Honor, the reputation was approved within this microloan. But the details of the agreements between relatives or colleagues, the small incidents of everyday life are almost not mentioned in written sources that serve as the basis for recreating the history of Paris in the Middle Ages, although it is certainly about important issues. To accurately designate these links, make the share of everyday events and actions that ensure the peace of mind, respecting others is a difficult task. Traces of agreements, contracts, certain actions of any noticeable people are stored in notarial archives, these are the mountains of documents, which reflect on the regulation of public life. These minor incidents practically did not interest the highest instances of the royal, feudal or church justice. However, over the entire period of the Middle Ages in Paris, the archives of only these instances are preserved. It is possible to conduct a study only about the late XV century, thanks to a large number of the miracle of the preserved documents from two Paris notarial offices, which reported, as expected, on very specific and most trivial cases. There are acts relating to the real estate market, which show that Parisians have developed this activity and in the city itself, and in the suburbs. There are also marriage contracts, documents on the establishment of guardianship and inheritance that can shed light on the history of Parisian genera of the end of the Middle Ages. We will look at two categories of documents covering the usual life of people from one end of the street or from one block: on the one hand, a notarized testing of various facts, and on the other hand, repaid consent to the settlement of small conflicts settled by compromise and for monetary compensation.

Jokes of the Parisian life of the end of the Middle Ages

The notarial acts stored in the archive of these offices shed light on the lives of people who lived on the right bank of the Seine at the very end of the XV century. It is important not the procedure, but the events themselves mentioned in these acts, as they create a clearer view of everyday life, which is certainly not too different from life on other streets and in previous periods.

Here, for example, the ACT, compiled in 1498 Tom Marshars, Jean Gautier and Mathieu Robishon, Winoregov, and Citizens of Paris, as well as Jeanne, Widen Wine Charger of Philip Bure. They confirm that the son of Jean Delestra, the Winnergie, who lived on the street Morotorri, but by that time the died, in fact he was nicknamed a little Jean. Why required such a document - it is unknown, but you can assume a certain conflict between the heirs and disputes about who hid under this nickname. The use of nicknames to designate people with the same names in the same family was commonplace, but since the nickname was fixed only orally, then at some point there could be a misunderstanding.

Insecurity, mother disputes, can also touch age. Before establishing a special office, engaged in the registration of birth and death, writing confirmations could serve in church books about baptism and death, but in the Middle Ages, such registration was not yet obligatory. Notarial testimation helps to overcome the difficulty arising in the question of inheritance or majority. Here is a document from 1496. Jean Lenorman, priest, Jacques Gautier, a merchant and a citizen of Paris, who lives on the street is frozard, as well as his wife and Zhanna, the wife of Kozhevannik Nikola de Ribekura, who resides in Paris on Street-Antoine Street, testify to the age of Tom Tubama, the son of Jean Tryukama, Investigator from Shatle. In the medium of small shopkeepers, servants or bathers, such ignorance, generating a dispute about the age of a young man, is quite likely. But the instruction on the social status of the Father sends us to the medium of magistrates from the Shatle, and not the very lowest category. Surely the dispute arose due to the lack of written confirmation (record of baptism in the church book). However, only approximate age is given in a notarial evidence. Probably the discussion was serious, since the witnesses were picked up from the widest social spectrum: the priest, a merchant, two women. In this case, the question is about the date of birth, in other cases it is about the exact date of death.

Here is a testimony from 1492, given by two noble ladies - Marie Huron and Michel Pensfati, as well as Henri Dubrey, the court traders, Antoine, the merchant, and Simone Duvish, living in Paris: they all claim that the noble lady of Helen de Balani, the spouse The nobleman Louis Trusso, Visconta de Bourja, flew all this year, did not come out of his mansion on St. Antooman Street in May, June and July and that the doctors had no hope. The document does not say, why required a certificate of severe illness, behind which, most likely followed the ambulance. In another document from 1493, several certificates were collected about the death of Jean de Betisi, the investigator from Paris Shatle, who deceased in his house on St. Antoine Street. Certificates are given by Jean De Betisi, selling leisures in Paris, and Jean Lelevrom, a servant of Clerambo de Champane, the Royal Notary and the Secretary. That is (judging by the surname) the relative of the deceased and man from his close environment. This adds certificate of Jean Bido, a priest from Erouvelily and Clavica from the Saint-Field, who repeatedly visited Jean de Betisi during his illness: he clarifies that Jean died on November 15, - probably, this is one of the priests who bored the patient. Another testimony is Jean Yue, simply called the priest, - confirms the previous and, moreover, clarifies that Jean was buried on Saturday after his death. Finally, two women probably lived in the house of the deceased, also give their testimonies: Marie de Betisi, Widow Mathieu d "Oxy, aunt Jean, and Genevieve de Conflan, who stays with Marie. Here we are also unknown, why it took such an investigation, But it reports some of some features of everyday life. In this part of St. Antoine, the house and households of the deceased are well known; these people are also associated with the parish clergy, conscientiously performing their duties and helping parishioners in such an important thing to rescue the soul, as "good death "

The date of death of the priest Lerua Guillome was witnessed in a notarized act, compiled in 1486. Charles Lerua, a police attractive, living in Paris on the street Zhui, as well as Gil Tyumye, also baptized, but living on Morotorry Street, declare that the giller who lived on Street Lie, died four years ago, that is, in 1482. To compile an act, they turned to a family member (wearing the same name and living on the same street) and his colleague. Police bailiffs who worn rod as a symbol of their power and official powers were pursuing a decision and sentences to Shatle.

All these examples show what difficulties can cause the lack of recording of civil status acts by church or secular authorities. For the lack of earlier sources of the same kind, we do not know when this inconvenience has become so noticeable that it has overcome all the obstacles to the regular record of the dates and death in parish books, but the mandatory registration of these events was introduced only in a new time.

Between birth and death is marriage. The contract determining the inheritance left by her husband may be questioned if there are no written confirmations of the marriage union. Perhaps this is exactly what three witnesses are called, collected in 1497 to confirm the marriage of Etienne Garnier, nobleman, Señora de Mgillon, with Maria de Royan, Jean's daughter, Gunsmith from Nanor, and Margarita Dowelac. Maria can enjoy the inheritance consisting of half of the estates of Mongilon, and Kurtevra - the property, visiting her Nicola Garnier, nobleman from Nanorov, and Margarita de Sarsel - Etienne's parents. The first testimony belongs to Catherine, daughter Emery Jossa, a customs official living in Paris on Mortelri Street, as well as Zhanna, daughter Jean Verzhushus, a forest traders from the same street. Both women argue that Etienne married Mary fourteen years ago and that wedding took place in Saint-Germain de Pre. Another testimony is given to a vest, wife Jean Deroa, Parisian merchant. It clarifies that Maria left the Emery Joss mansion to marry a certain Mongillon in Saint-Germain de Prost, and that a month later, Maria said the vest, that she was married and now lives in Paris, on Nonnen-D "Street Ier. These women were present at weddings. Probably, it was able to fame, and the colorful tuple went to the church in Abbey, it was about to remember fourteen years later, especially since the bride lived at Emery Joss.

Other confirmation acts show the role of neighbors and ways to appeal to collective memory, which keeps memories of the characteristic features of a person, the events of his life, small incidents, which happened more than or less, for example, about the end of a quarrel, paying the debt, for delivery of the part of the house or Claws.

Take, for example, Pierre Hyonna from Lyon - the tailor living on the street Calandon. In 1494, he died, and the family requiring confirming testimonies, probably because it was inherited. In fact, in the desired shortly after that document it is said that the brother of the deceased, a haberselker from Rouen, sells his rights to the inheritance of the court supplier from the street Calandon to pay their debts. Two acts are compiled, confirming that the deceased had a nickname "Martyrs" because of the bad passage of his wife (Certificate Michel Rabo, the landpasher from Arcay, and Pierre Nael, Bochar and the Grapery, also living in Arcay). Pierre Noel clarifies that it is about Pierre Hyonna from Lyon. The reference to the nickname is the essence of the testimony, for confirms the outrageous fact of violence by the grumpy spouse, possibly exaggerated by his brother. In any case, the nickname clarifies the identity of the deceased. Probably such a certificate was required to limit claims from the margin of Rodney. It is noteworthy that my wife itself did not appeal for evidence of the neighbors.

From other documents, you can enjoy information about the manual design, followed by damages; Street incidents and minor events that take the attention of the Parisian inhabitants of the late XV century.

In 1497, the Paris Bucket Jean Jeanbed, who lives on Stretri, issued a receipt of Jean de Lorry, a Batraku from the Grevskaya Square: Jean de Lorri received 20 Su, to compensation for moral damage for the wounds received by him in the scuffle, and for legal costs after reaching a compromise. This amount covered incurred expenses, since Jean de Lorri was supposed to pay for the treatment of the march (in those days, the barber was equated with the surgeon). The scuffle must have been universal, because in the same document, it is added that Jean Tribus accomplices - Jean Dupont, Jean Ru and Gil Le Burguen - should pay 4 su Zhau de Lorri for beatings, applied to his wife.

Sometimes it was harder to restore the world. So, in 1497, a certificate of compromise failure was registered (probably temporary). Claude Odiege, trader barrels from St. Antoine Street, Michel de Tourne, a river fish trader, and Jean Goult, Parisian fisherman from the street Morotri, said that Catherine, Zhana Riche's wife, a river fish merchant from Morotorri street, offered to pay 60 Su Reimbursement of damage to the sentence of his neighbor Jeanne, Felippo Wife, the Marine Fishman. In addition to 60 Su, she is ready to bring her neighbor to her apologies (this is indicated in the contract), but Felippo, the husband of the victim, refuses to restrict it.

As in the previous case, it is clear that production ties, a neighborhood environment and, of course, related bonds allow you to pay off the conflict in time, soften the collisions between people and find a way out of the collision of interest.

To this chronicle of everyday life, you can add a few more cases that create an idea of \u200b\u200bthe ordinary life, which is usually not said in sources.

In 1486, Tom de Paris, a cold shoemaker from the market, adopted the little Jean Coffinier, who then was eight years old, the son of Pierre Coffinier and his first wife Perrin, residing on Saint-Denis Street. Toma undertakes to identify the boy to school and treat him as with his own son, even if they subsequently with their wife will have children. This is guessed by an agreement between the comrades on the craft, perfectly knowing each other: the newly married widower gets rid of the child from the first marriage, and the adoptive parents who still do not have children and who may have lost their hope, adopt the boy with the calculation that Can help them. In 1495, Pierre Gale, Kamenotes from the Paris Street, Zhui promised Jackett La Bouquet, the girl on the issuance living in his own house, do not leave her, as she was pregnant with his son: Pierre will take care of her before childbirth, and after it undertakes to take The maintenance of the child. These two examples draw a rather optimistic picture of human relations in a homemade circle, balancing the violence, which other documents demonstrate.

In fact, insults, beatings and injuries were registered much more often than peace agreements. The evidence of them is very numerous, and all of them can be submitted in one example. This testimony, removing from the servant of Denis Taver, is a charge of participating in a fight, where he was only a witness. This claims Pierre Peler, a servant of the barbecue from Normandy, living on Ekufl Street. On the eve, one weave-substruser hit Erve's back with a knife, also weaved apprentices. All this happened on the street of the Sicilian king.

Another document, however, softens the painting of a gross bee, which is imposed on medieval Paris without regard. In the text of 1499, we are talking about ill-treatment of animals. Jean Bergeron and Jean Felizo, the servant of the merchant from Troita named Francois Enneken Jr., confirm that Jean Rozhen, a blacksmith from Paris, who lives from the old graveyard Saint-Jean, turned evilly with a mule, whom their owner's brother Simon Ennecgen ordered. Pharmacist, who lived next door to this blacksmith, confirmed this fact, but he was attributed to his girlish blacksmith. In the end, the blacksmith had to pay compensation to the owner of the Moula.

On top of the review of written reports on banal incidents, we mention the notarization of certificates of moral, about the place of residence and other instructions on the lifestyle. So, in 1499 Gauthier Deruez, a glitter from the Paris Street of the Sicilian King, as well as Mathieu Duquastel, servant of the noble senor of Guilloma de Monmodransi, testified that someone Etienne Ledia's nicknamed "Zelen-hastic gatekeeper", from the King's Sweets, in fact lives On the street of Jews, at the well. In another document from the same year, the virtuous life of Deni de Fren was witnessed, cheerbrack of wool from the Paris Street of Jews, and his wife Guilmetti, seamstress, thanks to the testimony of their neighbors - Zhana Zhana Henri, Bochar Jean Sarran, Margarita, Wives Batracka Drien Cordier, and Zhanna Lacalez, as well as Jean Pare, also Batraka.

In contrast to this neighboring solidarity, enhanced by the brotherhood of manual labor and a modest social situation, the case with residents of Street-Antoine Street reveals tensions and dislike. We are talking about the past, submitted to the Paris Preview - the chief representative of the royal power in the capital - noble people: Chevalier De La Vernadom, the speaker in the Royal Council, Jean De Relack from the Accounts Chamber, Francois Shambon, Advisor to Parliament, Nikolem Goli Lot, notary and secretary of the king who everyone lived on this street near the Church of St. Anthony. What is the purpose of petition? Excognizes from the streets of the duct and his wife, who have just settled here and whom these influential persons are accused of being taking unaffected people. Medieval Paris is characterized by mixing social statuses and crafts. This document confirms this: in order to evict the covers of ordinary people who are not appropriate in rank in the inhabitants of this part of the street, it is necessary to interfere with the highest authorities - Parisian Prev. But at the same time, this act shows that with mixing cease to put up to put up, which is gradually a certain code of decent neighborhood is gradually established. The same change of views is reflected in the lease agreements on the left bank of the Seine. They contain items that prohibit the owners of houses located nearby from premises occupied by university professors, to market a bad reputation, such as those engaged in noisy or dirty craft. In one lease agreement from 1484, concerning the Street of Sorbonne, there is such an item: "No special person performing dishonest, outrageous or harmful deeds is allowed to accommodate. In another contract, from 1485, the same thing is said otherwise: "It is impossible to give any dissolved specimens, but only relatives, servants or honest behavior." Colleges or professors imposing such restrictions motivate them by the fact that it is impossible to interfere with classes in schools.

Parisians between modernity and the burden of traditions

Compared to the life of other citizens from some mid-city, and especially rural residents, the life of Parisians in the late Middle Ages already seems almost modern. The reader will be able to make sure of this, having learned about the organization of labor, some types of trade, outdoor movement. In Paris, the city is democratic and free, there were a number of different public situation and nationality, religions and cultures were mixed here, giving rise to a prosperous and emphasized modern urban environment. Many features of Parisian life and activities have been preserved until the XIX century. They are indisputable, well documented and studied. However, the aspects of modernity cannot be missed, snatched them from a whole, which has other features, more unexpected and less explained. Such contrasts can be highlighted, having considered two topics, which are reflected in written sources only with hints: animals in the city and words and gestures of people in everyday life.

Animals occupied a great place in the life of Parisians. Those holly domestic pets - dogs, all kinds of birds (Scholar's shcheglov, animals of the birds from the princely enclosures, followed by special care, the songbirds, sitting in the cells in ordinary homes), and the strengths of this world held wild or exotic animals (for example, duke Berrhi held bears; in the royal wife, who was in the garden with the mansion of Saint-Paul, contained lions). The meaning of other animals participating in human activity - horses, donkeys and other cooch and heavy cattle, reflects the important role of a variety of traffic, many Parisians bred a domestic bird, and often pigs. The herds, intended for meat, drove down the streets to the filler meadows, and the animals passed there until they were sent to the slaughterhouse. In the big city, animals occupied an important place and in some ways were associated with the rural past of many residents.

Indicative example with pigs. If you adhere to the rules, everything is clear: the pigs should not wander through the streets, and if they get to the eyes of the workers of the order, they can confiscate them and transfer to the ridicians. Only Monks of the Abbey of St. Anthony have the right to leave their piglets in the city, where those feed on garbage. The prohibition is no longer such a strict due to the exception made for monastic pigs, but must admit that in general this measure looks quite modern in connection with concern about sanitation and traffic safety. However, did this rule comply? This can be doubted if you read, for example, the sentences of the Abbey of St. Martin. Animals, wandering through the streets, is quite frequent, so their fate was determined by the rules. Alive or dead, they are considered "inconsolable", and therefore they go to Senor. This right was applied to the pigs, wandering on the street Graville and Senor de Monmodi Street. But animal owners must have often stated a protest, arguing that the animal had fled, and demanded it back, which is why the Senor admits the world. So, the white pig that gave birth on the street of six piglets will remain in the monastery, unless the owner can prove that these animals belong to him.

To prohibit access to the street with animals, for which there was no proper supervision, turned out to be not easy. Stray dogs created a real problem, as they say to the measures taken to prevent them in certain places. In the accounts of the Hotel-Die Hospital, the costs of expulsion of stray dogs from hospital chambers are indicated, the churches are mentioned about whiskers to expand dogs.

Animals executed, like people when they were recognized as guilty, but also loved and defended. Their good health or healing prayed to God and holy ash builders. It was believed that Holy Severin heals horses, so one of the doors of the church dedicated to this saint was given under the horseshoes that hung on her as a sign of gratitude. The Church of St. Peter Beggar from the arrival of the butcher was decorated with two sculptural images of bulls. In fact, sick bulls were healed when "the keys of St. Peter" were applied to them, hot hot on fire. Animals organically divided the religious world with people. The flight of white pigeons released in churches symbolized the Holy Spirit, flight of other birds - joy and glory. The birds from the new bridge took it on themselves during the entry of the kings to the capital (by decree of Karl VI of 1402, they were supposed to catch 400 birds to the sky), so that had a privilege to install their cells and enclosures next to jewelery shops, but not building Relief and without installing poles that interfere with the passage.

Another moment sraising light on everyday life concerns words and gestures.

The usual words and actions, which are mostly neglecting written sources, give a bright coloring of everyday life. Historians re-read the documents to find there at least a hint of gestures and expressions.

Of course, when words are given in the document, they are often embellished with a chronistic, but when they make up the essence of the story or conflict, they can be recorded exactly. The saying of great people was preserved in writing. But the words of ordinary citizens were recorded, if they act as accused or witnesses.

Was it a special talk from Paris? Undoubtedly, it is reported by Paul Perrize, who studied "mistakes" in chains - "Parisimms", reflecting the specific features of the Paris calendar and revered by the saints. So, the epiphany is called "TiFeng", Veronica became "Venice", the Holy Mark - Holy Mahar. Calaibura, sometimes based on pronunciation, the game of images, chance of calendar explain the features of Paris religious practice. Saint Sebastian is celebrated on January 20 together with the Holy Fabian: these intercessors have nothing to do, except that they are honored in one day, thanks to which the ability of one (protect against the plague) is attributed to another. There - the coincidence of dates, here - the game of words. Here is the Holy Martyr John the Evangelist who died, cooked in boiling water. Therefore, the manufacturers of candles, boiling fat, elected it with their patron. Saint Sebastian, shot from Luke, for this reason, the patron saint of weaves who worked with thick spokes, similar to arrows, and iron merchants, since the arrows tormented by the martyr were from iron. Sometimes such a connection was based on a simple punishbur, perceived as an etymology: Saint Vincent was considered a patron saint of vineyards and a defender of vineyards, because in his name there is "wine". In the Middle Ages, such an imagination game did not insult anyone, even the clergy, which allowed the fantasies of believers to come even further and generate the judovo saints, for example, "Holy Dubin".

Expressions and words were fixed on paper, when they were considered offensive or blasphemous, and therefore punishable. The desire to prevent people - sinners who are constantly subjected to the temptation to hurt the honor of their neighbor, - to desecrate the sacred words, make an oath, eliminate the oath, explains the sentences who have appointed punishment for all these verbal crimes. Several examples explain the danger, which were exposed to quick-tempered, evil, grumpy men and women caught on the crime scene.

In the Register of the Abbey Saint-Martin-de Shan in 1338, the case of Farm and oaths are listed. The accused is protected: he has a sleeve of the escape of the vine, and he swore on it (in the Paris pronunciation of Serment - oath and Sarment - escape the vines sound the same). But not always the defendants turned out to be so popular, and the witnesses transferred their bad words that had written off to them. Some did not agree that the words of their boobs are presented correctly, for example, one person denied, as if he said "Be Neladn's blood mother of the Lord," and simply he said "Fire of St. Nicholas". Thus, he tried to avoid accusations of serious blasphemy, concerned only in harmlessly curse (mention of blood in curses and blasphemy gave them a grave nature and in the case of condemnation entailed a harsh punishment - a stigma and infant pillar). But did he manage to convince judges? Both expressions sounded too differently. In 1339, one coil was angry with a servant and shouting at him: "The blood of the body of the Lord, you want to deceive me?" He had to pay 40 su a fine and spend a week in a jail on bread and water.

Insulting the near, hiding his reputation, causes serious moral damage, and the victims require its refund. In documents reporting on insults, it is shown that often from words go to a fight, in which all relatives and neighbors are also drawn. So, one thing of 1338 ended with a fine imposed on two men who beat the third, tried to kidnap his wife, in the heat of the fights scattered bread exhibited in a neighbor's bedside shop, and called the "damn whiet and summary" bun. The offended woman has achieved a public restoration of his honor, defined in place. Offended could restore their reputation and otherwise: by collecting the relevant evidence and assuring them from the notary. So, one married couple suffered from slander took advantage of such a procedure in I486, and it was probably not a single case.

Gestles can also hurt honor, damage reputation. But offensive gestures were rarely described, and the seriousness of such an insult is not quite obvious. Gestures for women can be made with the intention to offend her or just be interpreted as such: for example, touching the hood on a cape of a young girl was perceived as a serious attempt on her, almost rape. Then close to the victim appealed to the court or achieving compensation for damage in other ways. Similarly, to unleash the belly of a woman, touch her hair meant to expose it. And when someone else has stroked the hair of a child, without having received permission, the family regarded this gesture as aggression.

To our unfortunately, peaceful and friendly gestures, soft words did not leave any traces in official documents.

In general, the daily lives of most Parisians in the late Middle Ages eludes the view of the historian. Only sometimes, by the will of the case, there are some features, because the compilers of the documents did not have anything to do. So, the patient search for scattered information should be continued using a classic, but always a productive approach to the history of the city: to rely on economic and social criteria. The level of wealth, handicraft and trade activities, the spectrum of professions and posts - from all this is a system of relations and subordination, which determines the laws of life and the possibility of social elevation. Paris, including the household side of life, is a whole world, as they say in the panelies to the capital. This is the residence of the authorities - the highest (king), important and diverse (royal servants and proxies), subordinates, but ubiquitous (feudal, religious communities). Finally, putting on the point of view of the Church, our study will affect other verses of this world, the world of the French capital. Moreover, for greater clarity, we divide these three views on everyday reality.

The city was formed in the middle of the III century BC. From the Celtic settlement Lutection of the Parisian tribe on the site of the modern Island. The modern name of the city is due on behalf of this tribe. The first written mention of lutecy is found in the 6th book of Julia Caesar about the war with Gallia in 53 BC BC.

Lutection plan

The island of Sitie had a clear division into the royal half with palace buildings and surrounding them by the servants and artisans and the clerical area with the Cathedral of Notre Dame and the possessions of the Archbishop and Cathedral Clean. Large monasteries such as Saint-Denis, Saint-Germain, Saint Laurent and others were also located in the center of the big estates. To this should be added possessions of large secular seeds. Depending on what place the owners of these places in the general hierarchical structure of the feudal society, depended on the size of their land plots and the nature of the architectural appearance of the main structures. It can be said that the monumental buildings of this time amounted to the architectural bones of medieval Paris.

When in 52 BC The Romans after the first unsuccessful attempt for the second time they tried to approach the city, Parisian set fire to literation and destroyed bridges. The Romans left them the island and built a new city on the left bank of the Seine. There they erected the terms, forum and amphitheater. In the Roman Empire, the city did not have a big influence.

Plan of Paris, 1223

Middle Ages

The Roman Board ended by 508 with the arrival of francs.

In the future, the development of Paris as a major trading and craft center caused the growth of the population. At the place of the previous fields, vineyards and wetlands, who disagreened the feudal estates, there were urban quarters, in which handicraft people settled, already combined into workshop corporations. At the turn of the XII - XIII centuries. By order of the King of Philip Augustus (1180-1223), the city wall was built on the right bank of the Seine, and in 1210 - on the left bank, in the boundaries of which the city began to split quickly. In addition to the previous roads, new streets arose, alleys and deadlocks. At the same time, the fortress of the Louvre is erected on the western outskirts of Paris.

Of great importance in the process of forming the street system of Paris played his shopping centers. Some of them have arisen during the early Middle Ages (for example, fairs near Saint-Denis country monasteries, Saint-Germain, Saint-Laurent), as well as later markets at Tampl (Monastery of the Templars) and the Abbey of Saint-Jacques (the Order of Hospital Services). Significant territories on the shores of the Seine in the eastern part of the city and beyond the wholesale trade in grain, wine, firewood and hay. The largest organization of medieval Paris was the Union of "Water Merchants", which owned a monopoly of trade navigation in Seine, Marne, Uaz and Ionna. This corporation not only took the coastal territory of a big length, but also actually kept the city administration of Paris in the hands, since from 1260. The head of this workshop became a city head.

In addition to the bidding listed above in Paris, the main market (the future of Paris's future "function), which arose in the western part of the city at the Saint-Onor gate, on which all varieties of goods were sold, mainly Parisian production. Markets and trading "cemented" the parish fragmented structure of the medieval city and along with the main city-wide centers - church, civil and palace - formed its architectural and spatial structure.

On the example of Paris, you can understand that the Western European city of the XIII-XIV centuries. was heterogeneous. It had feudal elements and elements of an early bourgeois society. This was the most characteristic feature of such a complex socio-economic phenomenon, which was the medieval city.

No less difficult was the artistic essence of the medieval city. She, as well as his socio-economic structure, was not homogeneous. On the one hand, the church and the top of the feudal society, seeking to strengthen the religious ideas, contributed to the formation of aesthetics based on idealistic world-up -ring, on the recognition of the divine harmony and perfection, on the desire for symbolism. On the other hand, medieval urban art was realistic in the full sense of the word, since it was folk and inseparable from everyday craft. The construction of temples, the town hall, residential buildings and the fortress walls was the root of the citizens themselves and therefore reflected the most vital real needs. These two sides of medieval art found their incarnation in the city ensembles of the XI-XIV centuries.

Starting from the XI century, Paris is one of the centers of European education, primarily religious. In the XIII century, as a result of disagreements among teachers, on the left bank (modern Latin Quarter), a number of "independent" colleges, the progenitors of modern sorbonna are opened.

In the XIV century, the city is applied by another wall on the right bank, on the place of today's large boulevards.

New time

Taking Bastille.

In the time of Louis XIV, the royal residence moved to Versailles, but Paris still remained the political center of France, thanks to the growing population and the leading role of Paris in the country's economy.

In 1844, the third fortress wall is built around the city, on the site of today's ring road around the city. In the nearby surroundings of the city, fortifications were built with a length of 39 km from the 16th Forts, at that time it was the largest protective structure in the world.

Eiffel Tower was built to the world exhibition 1889

In the second half of the XIX century, 5 out of 21 world exhibitions take place in Paris, which reflects the cultural and political influence of the city.

After sunset the second empire and the capture of Paris, the German troops, the Paris commune, consisting of workers, artisans and small bourgeois, made a temporary conservative government of the republic.

In the 90s of the XIX century and the first decade of the XX century, also known as the "beautiful era", France experienced an unprecedented rise and economic development.

During World War II, the city was busy with German Wehrmacht, the occupation lasted until the end of August 1944.

In Paris, the mass riots of May 68, led, ultimately, not so much to the change of government, how much to the indigenous redistribution of society, the change of mentality of the French.

Map of Paris 21 century